Chapter 2: Climate Change – Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation

Understanding Climate Change

■■Anthropogenic: Natural Variations vs Anthropogenic Changes

Earth’s climate has changed throughout history due to both natural and human causes. Natural variations include
orbital changes, volcanic eruptions, and solar variations that caused ice ages and warm periods. However,
present climate change is mainly anthropogenic, meaning caused by human activities. Since the industrial
revolution, burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, industries, and agriculture have increased greenhouse gases
such as CO■, CH■, and N■O in the atmosphere. These gases trap extra heat and lead to global warming.
Scientific evidence shows that the current warming trend is mainly due to human-emitted greenhouse gases
rather than natural causes.

■■Atmospheric Structure

Earth’s atmosphere is divided into several layers. The troposphere is the lowest layer extending up to about 10–12
km and contains most water vapor and greenhouse gases. Nearly all weather phenomena occur here. Above it
lies the stratosphere, which contains the ozone layer that absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Higher layers include the mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. These layers have less direct effect on
surface climate but influence incoming solar radiation and atmospheric processes.

■■Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process in which greenhouse gases allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere but
trap outgoing infrared heat. Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases increase this
heat-trapping effect and warm the Earth’s surface. Human activities such as burning coal, oil, and natural gas
increase greenhouse gas concentration, making the atmosphere warmer. This enhanced greenhouse effect is the
major cause of present global warming.

■■Global Projections

Climate models and IPCC reports project that global temperatures will continue to rise during the 21st century if
greenhouse gas emissions are not controlled. Future projections include increased heatwaves, rising sea levels,
melting glaciers, changing rainfall patterns, and more extreme weather events. Some regions may become wetter
while others may face severe droughts. Scientists emphasize that limiting warming to 1.5°C or 2°C is essential to
reduce severe climate risks.

■■India Specific Projections

India is expected to experience rising temperatures, stronger heatwaves, irregular monsoon rainfall, floods,
droughts, and glacier melting in the Himalayas. Coastal regions such as Mumbai and Kolkata are vulnerable to
sea-level rise and cyclones. Studies predict that India may warm faster than the global average, leading to water
shortages, agricultural losses, and stress on infrastructure and public health systems.

■■Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation

■■Oceans and Cryosphere

The oceans absorb most of the excess heat caused by global warming, leading to ocean warming and thermal
expansion. Oceans also absorb carbon dioxide, causing ocean acidification that harms marine organisms such as
corals and shellfish. The cryosphere includes glaciers, ice sheets, snow cover, and polar ice. Rising temperatures
are causing rapid glacier retreat, Arctic sea ice decline, and melting of polar ice, contributing to sea-level rise.

■■Marine and Coastal Ecosystem

■■Forest and Ecosystems

Forests and ecosystems are stressed by rising temperatures, droughts, and changing rainfall patterns. Many
forest regions may experience vegetation shifts and increased wildfires under hotter conditions. Climate change
also threatens biodiversity, as many plant species face extinction risks. Forests normally act as carbon sinks, but
severe warming may weaken their ability to absorb carbon dioxide.

■■Wildlife

Wildlife species are affected by habitat loss and changing climatic zones. Many animals are shifting towards
cooler regions or higher altitudes. Species such as snow leopards and Himalayan animals are already
experiencing habitat changes. Climate change also disrupts migration patterns and food chains, threatening
biodiversity and ecosystem balance.

■■Agriculture

Agriculture is highly sensitive to climate change. Heatwaves, droughts, floods, and irregular rainfall reduce crop
productivity. In India, crops like rice and wheat are particularly vulnerable to rising temperatures. Climate change
also increases pest attacks and water scarcity. Adaptation methods such as heat-resistant crop varieties,
improved irrigation, and climate-smart agriculture are necessary to reduce agricultural losses.

■■Human Health

Climate change affects human health through heatwaves, air pollution, water shortages, and the spread of
diseases. Rising temperatures increase heatstroke and mortality rates, especially in cities. Vector-borne diseases
such as malaria and dengue may spread to new regions due to changing climate conditions. Poor air quality also
worsens respiratory diseases.

■■Urban Infrastructure

Urban areas face multiple climate-related stresses. Heavy rainfall can overwhelm drainage systems and cause
urban flooding, as seen in cities like Mumbai and Chennai. Heat islands intensify temperatures in cities due to
concrete structures and lack of greenery. Climate change also puts pressure on water supply, electricity demand,
transport systems, and coastal infrastructure.

■■Vulnerability

Vulnerability refers to the likelihood of being harmed by climate change. It depends on exposure, sensitivity, and
adaptive capacity. Poor communities, rural populations, and marginalized groups are often more vulnerable
because they have fewer resources to cope with climate impacts. Climate risk is determined by the interaction of
hazards, exposure, and vulnerability.

■■Adaptation vs Resilience

Adaptation means making adjustments to reduce the harmful effects of climate change. Examples include
flood-resistant buildings, drought-tolerant crops, and water conservation methods. Resilience refers to the ability
of communities and ecosystems to recover quickly after climate-related disasters. Both adaptation and resilience
are important for reducing climate risks.

■■Climate Resilient Development

Climate resilient development refers to sustainable development that reduces vulnerability to climate change while
promoting economic and social progress. It includes climate-smart agriculture, renewable energy, disaster
preparedness, sustainable cities, and resilient infrastructure. Such development helps societies adapt to changing
climate conditions.

■■Indigenous and Local Knowledge

Indigenous and local communities possess traditional knowledge that helps them adapt to environmental
changes. Traditional water harvesting systems, local crop varieties, and forest conservation methods are
examples of valuable indigenous practices. Combining scientific knowledge with traditional knowledge improves
climate adaptation strategies.

■■Two Broad Strategies Exist

1. Reduce Emissions at Source

This strategy focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions through clean energy, energy efficiency, public
transport, and reduced fossil fuel use.

2. Enhance Sinks

This strategy increases the absorption of carbon dioxide through forests, afforestation, reforestation, wetlands,
and soil conservation.

■■GHG Reduction vs Sink Enhancement

GHG reduction decreases the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere, while sink
enhancement increases the removal and storage of carbon dioxide. Both approaches are essential for climate
mitigation and achieving long-term sustainability.

■■Carbon and Energy Intensity

Carbon intensity refers to the amount of CO■ emitted per unit of output or GDP. Energy intensity means the
amount of energy used per unit of GDP. Lower carbon and energy intensity indicate cleaner and more efficient
energy use. Policies promoting energy-efficient appliances, industrial upgrades, and renewable energy help
reduce both intensities.

■■Carbon Neutrality (Net-Zero)

Carbon neutrality or net-zero means balancing greenhouse gas emissions with their removal from the
atmosphere. Countries aim to achieve net-zero by reducing emissions and increasing carbon sinks such as
forests and carbon capture technologies. India has announced a target of achieving net-zero emissions by 2070.

■■Policy Instruments (National and International)

■■UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The UNFCCC was established in 1992 to provide an international framework for addressing climate change. It
promotes global cooperation for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate impacts.

■■Paris Agreement 2015

Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement aims to limit global warming to below 2°C and preferably 1.5°C. Countries submit Nationally
Determined Contributions (NDCs) outlining their climate commitments and mitigation plans.

■■NAPCC

National Action Plan on Climate Change

India launched the National Action Plan on Climate Change in 2008. It includes missions related to solar energy,
energy efficiency, sustainable habitat, water conservation, Himalayan ecosystems, Green India, sustainable
agriculture, and climate knowledge.

■■Decarbonizing Pathways & Net Zero

Decarbonization means reducing carbon emissions from sectors such as power generation, transport, industries,
and buildings. Pathways include renewable energy, electric vehicles, clean technologies, and energy-efficient
systems. Achieving net-zero requires deep emission cuts along with carbon removal methods.

■■Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency means using less energy to perform the same task. Examples include LED lighting, efficient
appliances, public transport, and improved industrial technologies. Better energy efficiency reduces energy
demand and greenhouse gas emissions.

■■Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished and environmentally friendly. Major renewable sources
include solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal energy. Renewable energy reduces
dependence on fossil fuels and helps mitigate climate change.

■■Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

Carbon Capture and Storage is a technology used to capture carbon dioxide emissions from industries and power
plants and store them underground. CCS helps reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide and supports decarbonization
efforts.

■■INDCs / NDCs and Climate Action Plans

Under the Paris Agreement, countries submit climate action plans called NDCs. India’s updated NDC targets
include reducing emission intensity, increasing non-fossil fuel energy capacity, and creating additional forest
carbon sinks. Financial mechanisms such as the National Adaptation Fund and Green Climate Fund support
climate adaptation and mitigation projects.

■■Climate Justice

Climate justice focuses on fairness in climate action. Vulnerable countries and poor communities often suffer the
most despite contributing least to global warming. Climate justice emphasizes equal distribution of benefits and
burdens, fair participation in decision-making, and recognition of the rights and cultures of affected communities.
The three principles of climate justice are distributive justice, procedural justice, and recognition justice.