Das et al.

, (2025), Faunal Wealth of India, Volume 1; ISBN: 978-81-984754-2-8

Chapter 1
Human-elephant conflicts in India
Anuradha Das1, Niraj Kumar2, Asim Panda3a,b, Rahul Uniyal4, Brajesh Kumar
Sahu5, Subhalakshmi Rout6* and Sanjeet Kumar6
1Department of Botany, Sindri College, Sindri, B.B.M.K. University, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India
2Department of Zoology, Laxmi Narain Dubey College, Motihari, East Champaran (B. R.
Ambedkar Bihar University, Muzaffarpur), Bihar, India
3aDepartment of Botany, Raidighi College, West Bengal, India
3bDepartment of Bioscience, JIS University, West Bengal, India
4Wildlife Conservation and Research Foundation (WCRF), Chandigarh, India
5Department of Botany, P.M. College of Excellence, Government College, Vidisha, Madhya
Pradesh, India
6Ambika Prasad Research Foundation, Odisha, India
*Email-Id: subhalakshmirout98@[Link]
DOI: [Link]

Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

Abstract: Human-elephant conflicts (HEC) is a complicated issue that arises when

elephants enter human-dominated landscapes in search of food, and water leading
to conflicts with humans. The causes of HEC vary with different areas and locations,
with habitat loss and fragmentation, human population growth and expansion,
agricultural encroachment into elephant habitats, and climate change in common.
The impacts of HEC are severe, resulting in human casualties, crop damage, property
destruction, and elephant deaths. Additionally, death of elephants can lead to forest
degradation and loss of biodiversity. To mitigate HEC, a range of measures can be
employed, including creating elephant corridors and habitats, community-based
conflict mitigation, compensation schemes for affected communities, proper
education and awareness programs. Effective management strategies for HEC
include the involvement of local communities, government agencies, and
conservation organizations in conflict prevention and resolution. Future research on
HEC should focus on understanding the impacts of human activities and climate
change on elephant behavior and habitat use. Present study recommends to restore
elephant habitat and corridors in scientific way after proper field studies. Adopting a
holistic and collaborative approach can reduce the incidence and impacts of HEC
and promote the conservation of elephants and their habitats.

Keywords: Biodiversity, conflict, conservation, habitat loss, mitigation

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Introduction

Human-elephant conflicts (HEC) are a big concern in India, where the

country's large human population and growing infrastructure development
are encroaching on elephant habitats (Rani et al., 2024). As a result,
elephants are forced to wander into human settlements for food, water, and
shelter, leading to conflicts with humans (Nad et al., 2022). According to
MoEFCC (Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change of India),
between 2015 and 2020 over 2,300 humans and 500 elephants lost their lives
due to HEC in India (MoEFCC, 2018). States like Odisha, Jharkhand, West
Bengal, Assam, and Kerala are among the worst-affected regions, with
frequent reports of crop damage, property destruction, and human
casualties (Tripathy et al., 2021). The conflicts are often caused by habitat
fragmentation, the development of roads and railways in the elephant
habitat, and changing land-use patterns (Shaffer et al., 2019). To mitigate
HEC, the Indian government has launched initiatives such as Project
Elephant, aiming to conserve elephant populations and habitats while
addressing human-elephant conflicts (MoEF and CC, 2023). Despite these
efforts, HEC remains a complex and persistent challenge in India. Effective
conflict management requires a dynamic approach involving government
agencies, local communities, conservation organizations, and other
stakeholders (Nguyen et al., 2023). This includes habitat restoration, corridor
conservation, community-based conflict mitigation, and compensation
schemes for affected communities. By adopting a collaborative approach,
India can work towards reducing human-elephant conflict and changing
the human behaviour towards the elephants (Zakaria et al., 2024).

I. Causes of conflicts

HEC in India is primarily driven by the increasing intersection between human

settlements and elephant habitats (Natarajan, 2024). HEC has become a
complex issue with multiple causes (Figure 1). One of the primary reasons is
the rapid expansion of human settlements and agriculture into elephant
habitats. As forests are cleared for crops, urbanization, and infrastructure
development, elephants are left with limited space to roam and forage
(Ram et al., 2021). This leads to the fragmentation of habitats, isolating
elephant populations and forcing them to migrate through human
settlements in search of food, water, and shelter (Anoop et al., 2023). Habitat
degradation is another significant factor contributing to human-elephant
conflict (Ramesh et al., 2022). The degradation of natural habitats due to
activities such as logging, mining, and construction reduces the availability
of elephant food sources, leading to increased crop raiding and property
damage (Thant et al., 2023). Elephants are extremely attracted to crops such

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as paddy, sugarcane, and maize, which are often grown in areas adjacent
to their habitats. As a result, conflicts arise when elephants enter agricultural
areas, causing damage to crops and property (Gubbi, 2012). The lack of
connectivity between fragmented habitats is another critical factor
contributing to HEC. As habitats become isolated, elephants are forced to
move through human settlements to reach other habitats, leading to
increased conflicts. The absence of functional corridors and connectivity
between habitats intensifies this issue, highlighting the need for conservation
efforts to focus on restoring habitat connectivity and reducing human-
elephant conflict (Jamaluddin et al., 2024). Climate change has also
aggravated the issue, with changing rainfall patterns and increased
frequency of droughts further reducing habitat and food quality and forcing
elephants to migrate into human-occupied areas. This increased movement
of elephants into human-dominated landscapes heightens the risk of
conflicts (Thant et al., 2021). Furthermore, climate change has also altered
the distribution and abundance of elephant food sources, leading to
increased competition for resources and further exacerbating conflicts
(Bhatt et al., 2018).

Figure 1: Causes of human-elephant conflict

II. Impact on human

The HEC has significant impacts on human lives and livelihoods. One of the
most immediate effects is the loss of property and crops (Su et al., 2020).
Elephants often raid agricultural fields, damaging or destroying crops, which
can lead to substantial economic losses for farmers (Prins et al., 2022). In
some cases, entire harvests are lost, leaving families without a source of
income or food. Additionally, elephants also damage or destroy homes,
buildings, and other infrastructure, causing further economic difficulties

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(Zhang et al., 2024, Figure 2). Human-elephant conflict also poses a

significant threat to human safety. Elephants are wild animals and can be
unpredictable, especially when they feel threatened or when they are
protecting their young ones. In some cases, they may attack people,
resulting in injuries or fatalities (Fernando et al., 2008). The impact of human-
elephant conflict on human well-being extends beyond economic and
physical losses. It can also have psychological and social impacts (MoEFCC,
2018, 2023). In some cases, HEC can also lead to the displacement of
communities, as people may be forced to leave their homes and livelihoods
due to the presence of elephants. This can have long-term impacts on
community cohesion, cultural heritage, and social structures (Nyumba et al.,
2020). Overall, the impact of conflict on humans is multifaceted and can
have far-reaching consequences for individuals, communities, and society
as a whole.

Figure 2: House damage by the elephants during food raiding

III. Impact on elephants

HEC has severe impacts on elephant populations, leading to significant

declines in numbers and alterations to their behaviour (Bhengra, 2025).
Elephants are often killed by humans in retaliation for crop damage or
property destruction, or they may be injured by traps, poison, or other forms

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of human-inflicted harm. This can lead to a decline in elephant populations,

particularly in areas where conflict is frequent and intense (Rani et al., 2024).
The conflict also has a profound impact on elephant behavior and social
structures. When elephants are repeatedly subjected to human disturbance,
they may become habituated to human presence, leading to changes in
their movement patterns and habitat use. This can result in elephants
becoming more vulnerable to human-wildlife conflict, as they may be more
likely to enter agricultural areas or human settlements in search of food or
shelter (Tang et al., 2020, Figure 3). Additionally, HEC can disrupt elephant
social structures, leading to the breakdown of family units and the loss of
critical social bonds. The impact of conflict on elephants can also be seen
in their physical and psychological health. Elephants that are repeatedly
exposed to human disturbance may experience chronic stress, which can
lead to a range of health problems, including digestive issues, reproductive
problems, and compromised immune systems (dos Santos et al., 2020). HEC
can also have long-term consequences for elephant populations, including
reduced fertility, altered age structures, and decreased genetic diversity
(Santos et al., 2019). These impacts can have far-reaching consequences for
the long-term viability of elephant populations, highlighting the need for
effective conservation and conflict mitigation strategies to protect these
iconic animals.

Figure 3: Movement of elephants near village areas

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IV. Impact on forests

Human-elephant conflict has notable impacts on forest ecosystems, leading

to changes in forest structure, composition, and function (Miacher et al.,
2020). One of the primary effects is the degradation of forest habitats due to
frequent elephant movement and foraging. If elephants are forced to
venture out of their natural habitats in search of food and water, they may
trample or damage forest vegetation, leading to the loss of biodiversity and
ecosystem resilience (Western and Mose, 2023). Additionally, the increased
movement of elephants after returning from the human habitats through
forests can spread invasive species, which can outcompete native
vegetation and alter forest composition (Beirne et al., 2021). The impact of
HEC on forests can also be seen in the alteration of forest regeneration
patterns. As elephants feed on certain tree species, they can influence the
composition of forest regeneration, leading to changes in forest structure
and function. This can have long-term consequences for forest ecosystems,
including changes to nutrient cycling, water cycle, and wildlife habitats
(Pradhan et al., 2007). The conflicts can also indirectly impact forests,
including the increased risk of forest fires. As elephants create pathways and
clearings, they can increase the risk of forest fires by creating fire breaks and
igniting dry vegetation. This can devastate forest ecosystems, including
biodiversity loss, soil degradation, and increased greenhouse gas emissions
(Cardoso et al., 2020).

Current trendline

Human-elephant conflicts have taken a toll on elephant survival and caused

several deaths in the past decade. Between 2009-2010 and 2020-2021,
about 186 elephants were killed on railway tracks in India caused due to
disrupted elephant corridors, with Assam accounting for the highest number
of deaths at about the count of about 62 ([Link] In
India, around 100 elephants lose their lives annually due to human-elephant
conflict (Shaffer et al., 2019). Between 2017 and 2022, India lost about 528
elephants due to unnatural causes, including human-elephant conflict
([Link] The average annual elephant deaths
of about 40-50 due to HEC are mainly from crop raiding (Lingaraju and
Venkataramana, 2016). About 71 elephants died due to electrocution in
Odisha, 55 in Assam, 52 in Karnataka, and 49 in Tamil Nadu between 2017
and 2022 ([Link] These numbers highlight the urgent
need for effective conflict mitigation and conservation strategies to protect
both human and elephant lives. The human casualties are also not far
behind, there are several cases of human deaths. The year-wise statistics on
human deaths due to human-elephant conflict include about 590 human

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deaths in 2019, 470 deaths in 2020, 560 deaths in 2021, 610 deaths in 2022,
and 630 deaths in 2023 ([Link] On average,
around 400-500 people are killed annually in India due to human-elephant
conflict (Shaffer et al., 2019). Human-elephant conflict has resulted in about
2,850 human deaths in the duration of 2018-2023, with Odisha recording the
highest number of deaths ([Link] In terms of
state-wise data, Odisha recorded the highest number of human deaths due
to human-elephant conflict, with 624 deaths between 2019 and 2023
([Link] Other states with significant human
casualties include Jharkhand (474 deaths), West Bengal (436 deaths), and
Assam (313 deaths) ([Link]

Conflict hotspots

India is home to a significant portion of the world's elephant population, and

HEC is a major concern in several parts of the country. There are some of the
human-elephant conflict hotspots in India where there is the highest record
of human and elephant casualties from the conflicts (MoEF and CC, 2023).
In the eastern parts of India, Odisha is known for its high human-elephant
conflict with numerous deaths of both humans and elephants due to habitat
fragmentation, destruction of migratory routes, and agricultural expansion
(Palita and Purohit, 2008). Jharkhand not being far behind has witnessed
significant human-elephant conflict, particularly in the districts of Ranchi,
Khunti, Saraekela, Gumla, and Simdega (Khan et al., 2023). The districts of
Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar, and Cooch Behar of West Bengal are also prone to
human-elephant conflict mainly due to population growth, encroachment,
and habitat fragmentation (Mukherjee, 2016). In Southern India, Karnataka,
particularly the districts of Hassan, Chikkamagalur, and Shimoga experience
frequent human-elephant conflicts mainly due to habitat shrinkage and
fragmentation (Baskaran, 2013). The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and the
surrounding districts of Coimbatore, Erode, and Tirupur of Tamil Nadu are
conflict-prone areas (Lingaraju and Venkataramana, 2016). The districts of
Wayanad, Palakkad, and Idukki of Kerala are known for human-elephant
conflicts (Ramakumar, 2021). The expansion of coffee and tea plantations in
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala has led to habitat destruction and
fragmentation (Gubbi et al., 2014). In Northeastern India, the districts of
Sonitpur, Nagaon, and Golaghat of Assam and the Garo Hills region,
Meghalaya are prone to human-elephant conflict due to habitat
fragmentation, agricultural expansion, and infrastructure development has
led to the destruction of elephant habitats and corridors (Chartier et al.,
2011; Choudhury, 2004). The districts of Haridwar, Dehradun, and Pauri
Garhwal of Uttarakhand, and the districts of Chittoor, Kadapa, and Kurnool
of Andhra Pradesh are prone to conflicts due to habitat fragmentation,

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agricultural expansion, and urbanization (Meena et al., 2021). These regions

require effective conflict mitigation strategies to ensure the safety of both
humans and elephants.

Mitigation and management strategies

Mitigating and managing human-elephant conflict requires a versatile

approach that involves government agencies, local communities, and
conservation organizations. Some of the management strategies include:

I. Physical barriers

1. Electric fencing: Low voltage electric fences around agricultural fields,

villages, and other human settlements are installed to deter elephants
(Kamdar et al., 2022).

2. Boundary walls: Boundary walls are constructed around conflict prone

areas to reduce interactions between wildlife and humans residing in the
forest fringes (Cabral de Mel et al., 2022).

3. Elephant-proof trenches: Trenches were made to hinder the movement of

elephants towards human settlement (MoEF and CC, 2023).

II. Crop protection

1. Crop insurance: Crop insurance schemes are implemented to

compensate farmers for crop damage caused by elephants (Chen et al.,
2013).

2. Alternative crops: The cultivation of alternative crops is promoted, which

are less preferable to elephants, or plantation of crops like marigold, sapota,
jatropha, etc. around the cultivation lands may reduce the conflicts
(Ramkumar et al., 2014).

III. Human-Elephant conflict monitoring

1. Conflict monitoring systems: Conflict monitoring systems are established to

track and respond to human-elephant conflicts which include remote
sensing, GIS, camera traps, etc (MoEFCC, 2023; Brickson et al., 2023).

2. Early warning systems: Early warning systems like frequent field patrols,
wireless communication, sighting messages through SMS alerts, etc. are
developed to alert communities of potential elephant movements. The
construction of watch towers also aids the process (Cabral de Mel et al.,
2022).

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3. Response teams: The Forest department plays a vital part in preventing

HEC. They developed a Primary Response Team (PRT) belonging to villages
that could work as the first level of defense to drive the elephant into forests
along with keeping the crowd away. Rapid Response Team (RRT) who may
be a biologist or veterinarian reaches the conflict spot to address all the
aspects of conflict (Fernando et al., 2008).

IV. Community engagement

1. Community-based conservation: Community-based conservation

initiatives that involve local communities in elephant conservation and
conflict mitigation should be supported with proper usage of drums,
firecrackers, fire torches, etc. for crop-guarding (MoEF and CC, 2023, Figure
4).

2. Education and awareness: Education and awareness programs to

sensitize local communities about elephant behavior and conflict mitigation
strategies should be conducted (Kamdar et al., 2022, Figure 5).

V. Habitat management

1. Habitat restoration: Degraded habitats and corridors should be restored

to reduce elephant movement into human-dominated areas (Kamdar et al.,
2022).

2. Protected area management: Protected area management rules should

be strengthened to reduce human-wildlife conflict (Cabral de Mel et al.,
2022).

VI. Compensation schemes

Human-elephant conflict compensation schemes: Compensation schemes

are established for human casualties and property damage caused by
elephants (Johnson et al., 2018).

VII. Research and development

1. Research on elephant behavior: Research should be conducted on

elephant behavior and ecology to develop conflict mitigation strategies
(Zakaria et al., 2024).

2. Development of innovative technologies: Innovative technologies, such

as drones and sensors, are developed to monitor and manage human-
elephant conflict (Yang et al., 2023).

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Figure 4: Discussion with local communities about initiatives for elephant

conservation & Human-Elephant conflicts

Figure 5: Awareness about elephant behavior and conflict mitigation

strategies with local communities

Policies and legislation

Policy and legislation play a crucial role in managing human-elephant

conflict by providing a framework for conservation and conflict mitigation
(Pradhan et al., 2023). National policies and laws can help protect elephant
habitats and corridors, prevent habitat fragmentation, and regulate human
activities that contribute to conflict. For instance, the Wildlife Protection Act
of 1972 in India provides legal protection to elephants and their habitats
(MoEFCC, 2023). Effective policy and legislation can also facilitate

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compensation schemes for human casualties and property damage caused

by elephants (Ramakumar, 2021). The Government of India's National
Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) includes provisions for compensation to
farmers for crop damage and loss of livestock due to wildlife. Such schemes
can help reduce human-wildlife conflict by providing financial support to
affected communities (Woolaston et al., 2021). Furthermore, policy and
legislation can promote community-based conservation initiatives, which
involve local communities in elephant conservation and conflict mitigation
(Zakaria et al., 2024). Legislation like Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972; Forest
(Conservation) Act, 1980; Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986; Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960; Indian Forest Act, 1927 and the Forest Acts
of the State Governments, etc. safeguards conservation and welfare of
elephants in India (Pandey et al., 2024). They can also support research and
development of innovative technologies to monitor and manage human-
elephant conflict. For instance, the use of drones, sensors, and other
technologies can help track elephant movements, detect early warning
signs of conflict, and respond quickly to mitigate conflicts (Lopez and Mulero-
Pazmany, 2019). Governments can provide funding and incentives for
research and development of such technologies, and create an enabling
environment for their survival (Woolaston et al., 2021). In addition,
international cooperation and agreements can also play a crucial role in
managing human-elephant conflict. For example, the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
regulates the international trade in elephant products, while the Convention
on Migratory Species (CMS) provides a framework for the conservation of
migratory species, including elephants (Subramanian, 2017-18). Such
international agreements can help coordinate conservation efforts, share
best practices, and address common challenges in managing human-
elephant conflict (van de Water et al., 2022).

Future research and conservation recommendations

Future research on mitigating human-elephant conflict (HEC) should focus

on developing innovative technologies and strategies that can effectively
reduce conflicts between humans and elephants. One area of research
could be the development of drone-based monitoring systems that can
track elephant movements and alert communities of potential conflicts.
Another area of research could be the use of data analytics and machine
learning to identify patterns and predictors of HEC, allowing for more
targeted and effective conflict mitigation strategies. Additionally, research
on the impacts of climate change on elephant behavior and habitat use
could inform the development of climate-resilient conservation plans.
Conservation recommendations for mitigating HEC include the protection

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and restoration of elephant habitats and corridors, the development of

sustainable land-use plans, and the promotion of coexistence between
humans and elephants. Governments, conservation organizations, and local
communities should work together to establish and manage protected
areas, such as national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, and to restore
degraded habitats and corridors. Additionally, conservation efforts should
focus on promoting sustainable agriculture practices, reducing human-
wildlife conflict, and supporting community-based conservation initiatives.
By adopting a holistic and collaborative approach, it is possible to reduce
the incidence and impacts of HEC, and to promote the conservation of
elephants and their habitats.

Conclusion

The human-elephant conflict is a complex issue that requires a

comprehensive and sustainable solution. As human settlements and
agriculture land expansion continue to encroach on elephant habitats,
conflicts between humans and elephants are inevitable. However,
elephants are not the aggressors in the conflicts, they are just trying to survive
in the rapidly changing world. They are the victims of habitat loss and
fragmentation; therefore, it is essential to prioritize elephant conservation
through habitat preservation and community engagement. Effective
management of human-elephant conflicts in India requires a collaborative
effort from government agencies, conservation organizations, and local
stakeholders. This can be done by implementing conservation measures
such as habitat restoration, corridor management, and compensation
schemes for crop damage and other life and property damage from
conflicts. Additionally, education and awareness programs can also help
promote coexistence and reduce conflicts. By working together, it is possible
to mitigate human-elephant conflict and ensure long-term conservation of
the majestic elephant population. Ultimately, resolving human-elephant
conflict in India requires critical understanding of the elephant habitat,
behaviour, and the intrinsic value of elephants.
Acknowledgements: Authors are grateful to the PCCF & HoFF and PCCF (Wildlife) & Chief
Wildlife Warden, Forest, Environment and Climate Change Department, Govt. of Odisha,
Odisha. Authors are also thankful to the Divisional Forest Officer, Bonai Forest Division, Odisha &
Forest staffs of the division. Authors are also thankful to the local communities for providing
information on Human-Elephant conflicts and allow us to discuss on various aspects of forest,
wildlife, conflicts, and conservation issues.

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