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Land Disposal of Hazardous Waste

What is Land Disposal?
Hazardous waste placed on or below the ground surface
Common methods:
•Secure landfills
•Deep well injection

Important Facts
• Large quantities of hazardous waste are disposed on land every year.
• Modern disposal facilities include engineered safety systems and regulations.

Environmental Concerns
Improperly treated waste may contaminate:
•Soil
•Groundwater
•Surface water
Rainwater infiltration can generate leachate, which may mobilize hazardous substances.

The Land Disposal Restrictions

Background
• Land Disposal Restrictions (LDR) were introduced under federal law to prevent unsafe land disposal of hazardous
wastes.
• The regulations were implemented in five phases, each targeting specific hazardous wastes.

Phase I (1986)
• First restrictions applied to:
•Spent solvents
•Dioxin-containing wastes
• Implemented under 40 CFR Parts 268.30 and 268.31.

Why These Wastes First?

• Generated in large quantities
• Highly toxic and hazardous to human health and the environment

Examples of Restricted Wastes

• F001–F005: Spent solvents
• F020–F023, F025–F028: Dioxin-containing wastes
(F-listed wastes originate from nonspecific industrial and manufacturing processes.)

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Land Disposal Restrictions – Phase II & Later Phases

Phase II (1987) – California List Later Phases (III, IV & V)
• Named after California, the first state to restrict land Address land disposal restrictions for all remaining
disposal of these wastes. hazardous wastes.
• Restricts untreated liquid hazardous wastes Examples include:
containing: • F-listed wastes – nonspecific industrial wastes
ü Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) • K-listed wastes – wastes from specific industries
ü Corrosive wastes (pH < 2) or free cyanides • P & U wastes – discarded commercial chemical
ü Toxic metals: products
Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium (VI), Lead, Mercury,
Nickel, Selenium, Thallium
ü Halogenated organic compounds
(Regulated under 40 CFR Part 268.32)

Land Disposal Restrictions (LDR) – General Requirements

Who must follow LDR? Key Requirements

• Hazardous waste generators • Waste must be analyzed and documented before disposal
• Waste transporters • Notification and certification must accompany the waste
• Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDFs) • A Uniform Hazardous Waste Manifest must be used for
• Hazardous waste recycling facilities transport
(Small generators producing <100 kg/month may be
exempt.)
Disposal Condition
Responsibility
• Hazardous waste must be treated before land disposal
The generator is responsible for providing the
• Disposal is allowed only in approved hazardous waste
manifest and LDR notification.
landfills (EPA standards)

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Secure Hazardous Waste Landfill

Regulatory Requirement
• Secure landfills must include liner systems to prevent the migration of hazardous waste into the surrounding soil and
groundwater during operation and after closure.

Comparison with Municipal Solid Waste Landfills

MSW Landfill (Subtitle D) Hazardous Waste Landfill (Subtitle C)

Single liner system Double liner system
Basic leachate control Two leachate collection & removal systems (LCRS)
Lower regulatory requirements More stringent regulations

Liner System Components

Secure hazardous waste landfills use a double-liner
1. Primary (Top) Liner
system with leachate collection to prevent groundwater
•Geosynthetic or flexible membrane liner
contamination.
•Prevents migration of hazardous constituents
2. Secondary (Bottom) Composite Liner
•Upper layer: geosynthetic liner
•Lower layer: compacted soil/clay barrier
ü Minimum 91 cm (3 ft) compacted soil layer
ü Hydraulic conductivity ≤ 1 × 10⁻⁷ cm/s

ü A LCR system is installed immediately above the top (primary) liner to collect and remove leachate during the active
life and postclosure care period of the landfill.
ü A secondary LCR system is placed above the composite liner. This is also a leak detection system and must be
capable of detecting, collecting, and removing leaks of hazardous constituents through the top liner as early as
possible.
ü The state regulatory agency specifies the design and operating conditions in the permit to ensure that the leachate
depth over the liner does not exceed 30 cm (1 ft).

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Leak Detection System (40 CFR 264)

Purpose
Detect leakage from the primary liner and prevent contamination of the secondary liner and groundwater.

Design Requirements
Ø Minimum bottom slope: ≥ 1% to allow drainage
Ø Drainage layer:
• Granular material with hydraulic conductivity ≥ 1 × 10⁻² cm/s
• Thickness ≥ 30.5 cm (12 in)
• Alternatively, synthetic geonet drainage material

Material Requirements Operational Requirements

Ø Must be chemically resistant to hazardous Ø System should minimize clogging during operation and post-
waste and leachate closure period
Ø Must have adequate strength and thickness to Ø Must include sumps and pumps to remove collected liquids
withstand waste load and equipment pressure and prevent liquid buildup

Alternative Designs for Hazardous Waste Landfills

Regulatory Provision
• Permitting agencies may approve alternative landfill designs or operating practices if they prevent the migration of
hazardous constituents into groundwater or surface water.

Factors Considered in Alternative Designs

• Waste characteristics and quantity
• Hydrogeologic conditions of the site
• Ability of liners and soil layers to prevent contaminant migration

Conditions Where Double-Liner Requirement May Be Waived

The requirement may be relaxed if the landfill:
• Contains only specific low-risk hazardous wastes
• Has at least one intact liner
• Is located more than ¼ mile from a drinking water source
• Complies with groundwater monitoring regulations

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Surface Water Management in Secure Landfills

Importance
Proper management of surface water (run-on and runoff) is essential to prevent water from entering the landfill and
generating excess leachate.

Run-on Control System

• Designed to prevent external stormwater from flowing onto the active landfill area.
• Must handle peak discharge from at least a 25-year storm event.

Runoff Management System

• Installed to collect and control stormwater leaving the landfill.
• Must manage runoff generated from a 24-hour, 25-year storm.

Secure Landfill Design, Construction, and Operation

General Requirement
Many design and construction requirements for secure hazardous waste landfills are similar to those used in Subtitle D
(municipal solid waste) landfills, but with more stringent environmental protection measures.

Liner Materials Clay Liners

Secure landfills commonly use: Clay is widely used because it:
• Clay liners • Is readily available and durable
• Geomembrane liners • Can withstand mechanical stresses
• Composite liners (clay + geomembrane) • Integrates well with native soil materials
• Provides low hydraulic conductivity

Regulatory Requirement (U.S. EPA)

Clay liners must be constructed to achieve:
Hydraulic Conductivity ≤ 1 × 10⁻⁷ cm/s
This ensures minimal migration of hazardous contaminants into surrounding soil and groundwater.

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Synthetic Liner Materials (Geomembranes)

What are Synthetic Liners?
Synthetic liners, also called geomembranes, are made from polymeric materials with high molecular weight and are
used to prevent the migration of contaminants from landfills.

Common Polymeric Materials Used

Material Type Examples
Thermoplastics Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Crystalline Thermoplastics High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE)
Thermoplastic Elastomers Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE), Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE)
Elastomers Neoprene, Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM)

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Geomembranes Used in Hazardous Waste Landfills

Role of Geomembranes
Geomembranes are synthetic liners used to prevent the migration of hazardous contaminants from landfills into soil and
groundwater.

Important Properties to Consider Common Geomembrane Materials

• Chemical compatibility with waste and leachate • HDPE – High Density Polyethylene (most widely used)
• Stress–strain behavior (mechanical strength) • VFPE – Very Flexible Polyethylene
• Survivability during installation • PVC – Polyvinyl Chloride
• Low permeability • CSPE – Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene
• Flexible Polypropylene
Typical Thickness Requirements (U.S. EPA)
Why Thicker HDPE Liners are Preferred
Material Minimum Thickness
• Easier and safer welding during installation
PVC geomembrane 30 mil • Higher tensile strength and strain capacity
HDPE geomembrane 60 mil • Greater resistance to stress cracking
• Reduced risk of damage due to folding
(1 mil = 1/1000 inch)

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HDPE Geomembranes in Landfills

Key Advantage
High chemical resistance to hydrocarbons and organic solvents.

Comparison with PVC Geomembranes

Chemical resistance differences between HDPE and PVC are significant for:
• Aliphatic hydrocarbons
• Aromatic hydrocarbons
• Chlorinated solvents
• Oxygenated solvents
• Crude petroleum compounds

Potential Limitation Recent Developments

Due to its semicrystalline structure, HDPE may Manufacturers are developing improved HDPE resins with:
be susceptible to stress cracking, especially • Greater stress crack resistance
under mechanical stress in the presence of • Higher chemical stability
leachate. • Better oxidation resistance
• Improved cost-effectiveness

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Composite Liners in Hazardous Waste Landfills

What is a Composite Liner?
A composite liner system consists of:
• Geomembrane liner (synthetic layer)
placed directly above
• Compacted clay liner (natural barrier)
This combination provides very low permeability and improved environmental protection.

Why Composite Liners are Used

• Provide better containment than either geomembrane or clay liner alone
• Reduce the migration of leachate into soil and groundwater
• Offer redundant protection in case one layer is damaged

Leachate Movement (Darcy’s Law)

If leachate accumulates above a liner, the rate of percolation depends on:
• Hydraulic conductivity of the liner
• Hydraulic head (leachate depth)
• Area of the liner

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Performance of Composite Liners

Key Concept
When a geomembrane is placed directly on top of a compacted clay liner, the two layers act together to minimize
leachate migration.

Clay Liner Alone Composite Liner (Geomembrane + Clay)

• Leachate spreads laterally across the clay surface. • Geomembrane acts as the primary barrier.
• A large area of clay becomes involved in leakage. • If a defect occurs in the geomembrane, leachate moves
directly downward into the clay.
• Lateral spreading is limited, reducing leakage.

Figure: The FML should be placed directly upon the clay liner (a); this limits leachate infiltration into the clay (b)

Result
• Much lower leakage rate compared with a clay liner alone.
• Improved containment of hazardous contaminants.

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Importance of Contact Between Geomembrane and Clay Liner

Proper Installation Requirement
The geomembrane must be placed directly on top of the compacted clay liner to prevent leachate from moving laterally
between the two layers.

If Contact is Poor (Gap Between Layers)

• Leachate entering through a defect in the geomembrane can spread laterally.
• A large area of the clay liner becomes involved in infiltration.
• Leakage may occur almost as if the geomembrane were absent.

If Contact is Proper (Composite Liner)

• Geomembrane acts as the primary barrier.
• Any leakage moves directly downward into
the clay liner.
• Lateral spreading is minimized, reducing
overall leakage.
Figure: Leachate infiltration in a clay and a composite liner system

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Compatibility of Liners With Wastes

ü The chemical compatibility of a geomembrane with waste leachate is a critical
consideration regarding choice of material.

ü A secure landfill is considered a permanent repository for hazardous wastes; therefore,

materials used in its construction must be expected to withstand a wide range of natural
stresses for very long periods.

ü Many materials deteriorate over time when exposed to chemicals occurring in both
hazardous and nonhazardous leachate. Landfill owners and operators must anticipate the
composition of leachate that a site will generate and select the appropriate liner materials.

ü The chemical resistance of any geomembrane materials as well as LCR pipes should be
thoroughly assessed prior to installation.

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Leachate Management

ü A liner that is completely sealed at the base requires an efficient means of removing
accumulated leachate, otherwise the head pressure will damage the geomembrane. Even
the best quality material will eventually allow liquids to penetrate.

ü Even if a liner is perfectly sealed and without holes or other disturbances, molecular
diffusion will cause some liquids ponded on top of the liner system to leach through the
geomembrane.

ü The first ‘line of defense’ in the collection of leachate is the primary LCR situated
directly beneath the waste and above the primary geomembrane.

ü The primary LCR is designed and constructed on a site-specific basis in order to

optimize performance.

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ü The second component of the LCR is installed between the primary and secondary
liners. This secondary LCR is also known as the leak detection network.

ü The leak detection, collection, and removal system can consist of either granular soils
(i.e., gravels) or geonets.

ü The primary purpose of this system is to determine the degree of any leakage of liquids
through the primary liner.

ü Under optimum conditions, the secondary LCR will collect negligible quantities of
leachate; nevertheless, it must be designed on the basis of a worst-case scenario (U.S.
EPA, 1989).

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Drainage Materials
ü The drainage materials for the leachate management system must allow for the
unimpeded flow of liquids to ensure the life of the facility.

ü In a leachate collection system, the drains may consist of pipes, coarse soil such as
gravel, or geonets.

ü Perforated drainage pipes are in common use in a number of industrial and other (e.g.,
agricultural) activities. Such pipes transmit fluids rapidly. They do, however, require
considerable vertical space and are susceptible to particulate clogging, biological
clogging, and creep (deflection).

ü Creep is a potential problem with both PVC and HDPE pipe materials (U.S. EPA, 1989).
The crushing strength of pipes should also be tested.

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ü Events have been documented where landfill pipes have collapsed and failed. The
ASTM D2412 test is used to measure the strength of pipe materials (ASTM, 2002).

ü Geonets are synthetic materials that require less space than perforated pipe or gravel,
promote rapid transmission of liquids, and, because of their relatively large openings,
are less likely to clog. They do, however, require geotextile filters above them and can
experience problems with creep and intrusion.

ü Natural drainage materials should be tested to ensure that they will not dissolve in the
leachate or form a precipitate that might clog the system.

ü ASTM D2434 evaluates the ability of the materials to retain permeability characteristics
(ASTM, 1968), while ASTM D1883 tests for bearing ratio, or the ability of the material
to support the waste unit (ASTM, 1999).

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Leachate Removal Systems

A sump is needed in the lowest portion(s) of the landfill to remove accumulated leachates.

The leachate removal standpipe must be extended through the entire landfill from the
lowest liner to the cover, and then through the cover itself. It must also be maintained for
the entire postclosure care period of 30 years or longer.

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Closure of the Secure Landfill

ü Once a secure landfill or a cell is completed, it must be sealed off from its surroundings.
ü Under the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA), there are numerous
requirements for preventing water entry into the landfill and for diverting and removing
surface liquids.
ü A secure landfill cover consists of several layers.
ü A dense clay cover is placed directly over the waste. This is compacted by heavy
machinery in order to decrease pore sizes and thus slow hydraulic conductivity.
ü After grading, a geomembrane cap is placed over the clay layer.
ü A surface water collection and removal (SWCR) system is installed above this
composite liner system.
ü Beyond this is a soil layer that holds rooted vegetation.

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Geomembrane Caps
ü Geomembrane caps are synthetic membranes with chemical and physical properties
similar to those of geomembrane liners. The geomembrane cap, however, is one
component of the cover.
ü The geomembrane cap is placed over the low permeability clay cap and below the SWCR
system .
ü Geomembrane caps function primarily by preventing surface water including
precipitation from entering the landfill.
ü In selecting materials for the geomembrane cap, operators should keep in mind some
practical differences between liners and caps.
ü Unlike a liner, a geomembrane cap is usually not exposed to leachate, so chemical
compatibility is not a significant issue.
ü Membrane caps also have lower stresses acting on them in comparison with liners.

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Figure: SWCR system

An advantage geomembrane caps have over liners is that they are much easier to repair
due to their proximity to the surface of the landfill. Geomembrane caps will, however, be
subject to other strains due to settlement of the waste.

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Surface Water Collection and Removal System

ü The surface water collection and removal (SWCR) system is installed on top of the
completed unit and directly above the geomembrane cap.

ü The purpose of the SWCR system is to prevent the infiltration of surface water into the
landfill by diverting and removing any liquid that comes into contact with it.

ü Surface water is redirected to the perimeter of the cover system.

ü The rainwater that percolates through the topsoil and vegetative cover is carried off to
an upper drainage system.

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Surface Water Drainage Systems in Landfills

Types of Drainage Materials Synthetic drainage materials such as geonets or
Surface water drainage systems may consist of: geocomposites may be used if:
• Granular soils (most commonly used) • Suitable granular drainage materials are
• Geonets unavailable, or
• Geocomposites • The landfill site is very large,
Among these, granular soil drainage layers are widely used in
landfill cover systems. Geocomposite drainage systems typically consist
of:
In regions where frost penetration occurs, additional soil • A polymer core (for liquid flow), and
protection is required: • A geotextile filter layer (to prevent clogging by
• 1–2 m soil cover is placed above the geomembrane liner to fine particles).
protect it from frost damage.
• Within this cover, a 0.3 m granular soil layer is typically used Drainage geocomposites offer:
as the surface drainage collector. • Higher flow capacity
This layer helps collect and divert surface water away from the • Efficient liquid transmission
landfill. • Reduced construction thickness
Chemical Considerations
Some polymers may be sensitive to highly reactive leachates.
However, in surface water drainage systems, the geocomposite is exposed only to:
•Rainwater
•Surface runoff
Therefore, chemical attack from landfill leachate is generally not a concern in this layer.

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Figure shows a typical landfill

profile designed to meet the EPA
minimum technology guidance
requirements.

The upper profile includes

ü the soil cover,
ü a 1 ft lateral drainage layer, and
ü a low permeability cap of
barrier soil (clay), which must
be more than 2 ft thick.

This three-layer system also

includes a geomembrane cap and
Figure: Profile of a Subtitle C hazardous waste landfill
an optional gas control layer.

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Ø In designing a SWCR system, three highly practical issues must be considered:

(1) cover stability, (2) puncture resistance, and (3) the ability of the system to withstand
considerable stresses due to the impact of settlement.

Ø The stability of the geomembrane cap supporting the SWCR system can be affected by
the materials used to construct the drainage layer and by the slope of the unit layers.

Ø Geomembrane caps must resist penetration by construction equipment, rocks, roots, and
other natural phenomena. Traffic by operational equipment can cause tearing.

Ø In a Subtitle C landfill, a geomembrane is always underlain by a clay liner, which will

protect against puncture. Additionally, a geotextile placed on top or beneath a
membrane increases its puncture resistance by three or four times.

Ø The impact of settlement is a major concern in the design of the SWCR system. A
number of facilities have settled 6 ft in a single year and 40 ft or more over a period of
years (U.S. EPA, 1989).

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Gas Control Layer

ü Gas collection systems are typically not used in Subtitle C landfills.

ü Landfills dedicated to receiving only hazardous wastes are relatively new and gas is
rarely detected in these systems. This is attributed to the fact that most wastes are
received in stabilized or solid form, and there are no putrescible materials present as
would be found in a conventional MSW landfill.

ü Because the long-term effects of gas generation are not known and costs are minimal,
the U.S. EPA recommends the use of gas collector systems.

ü Gas collection systems are installed directly beneath the low permeability clay cap in a
Subtitle C landfill.

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Biotic Barrier

A biotic barrier is a gravel and rock layer designed to prevent the intrusion of burrowing
animals into the landfill. Animals cannot generally penetrate a geomembrane cap but they
can widen an existing hole or tear the material where it has wrinkled (U.S. EPA, 1989).

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Vegetative Layer
ü The uppermost layer in the closed landfill profile is the vegetative layer. This layer is
often planted with a bed of dense-rooted grasses and legumes.
ü The vegetative layer prevents wind and water erosion, minimizes the percolation of
surface water into the waste layer, and maximizes evapotranspiration, i.e., the loss of
water from soil by evaporation combined with plant-induced transpiration.
ü The vegetative layer also enhances aesthetics and promotes a self-sustaining ecosystem
on top of the landfill.
ü There are problems in maintaining a vegetative layer on top of a landfill site, especially
in arid or semiarid regions. A vegetative layer built upon a surface water collection and
removal system composed of well-drained stone and synthetic material may be unable to
support crops of any kind because insufficient soil moisture will be available.
ü In arid regions a continuous sprinkler system may be needed to maintain plant growth,
even if the soil is sufficiently deep and fertile.

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Typical layout
of hazardous
waste landfill

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Typical Sections of HW landfill

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This design is used when:

•Groundwater table is high
•Excavation is not feasible
•Soil conditions are poor Used where:
Characteristics •Excavation is possible
•Waste is placed above natural ground level. •Groundwater table is deep
•The landfill forms a mound or embankment structure. •Soil is stable.
•Side slopes are stabilized with soil cover. Characteristics
Filling Sequence •Waste is disposed in trenches excavated below ground level.
Cells are filled phase-wise from bottom to top. •Excavated soil is often used as daily cover.
Advantages Advantages
•Avoids groundwater excavation •Good containment
•Easier liner installation. •Reduced visual impact.
Disadvantages Limitations
•Requires strong slope stability design •Not suitable in high groundwater areas.
•Higher visual impact.

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Slope Landfill Valley Landfill

Used in hilly or sloping terrains. Used when a natural valley or depression exists.
Characteristics Characteristics
•Landfill cells are constructed along the natural slope. •Waste fills the valley between hills.
•Waste placement progresses downhill or across the slope. •Side slopes act as natural containment walls.
Advantages Advantages
•Requires less excavation •Efficient use of natural topography
•Uses natural drainage gradient. •Reduced excavation cost.
Challenges Limitations
•Slope stability •Requires careful drainage and liner installation.
•Leachate flow control. •Potential water accumulation risk.

Above and Below Ground Landfill (Hybrid Design)

This is a combined landfill configuration.
Characteristics
•Part of the landfill is excavated below ground.
•Additional waste is placed above ground forming a
mound.
Advantages
•Maximizes site capacity
•Flexible design for varying terrain conditions.

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Components of a landfill phase

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Operation of a landfill in phases

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Water - balance for estimation of leachate quantity

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Leachate collection pipe network

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Leachate path and leachate removal

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Causes
•Excessive slope angle
•Poor compaction of waste
•Excessive moisture or leachate
Surface Sliding Along Waste Slope •Weak waste structure.

Causes
•Smooth geomembrane surfaces
•Low shear strength at liner interface
•High waste load
•Poor anchoring of liner.

Sliding Along the Liner Interface

Causes
•Weak foundation soil
•Excessive waste height
Deep Rotational Slope Failure •High pore water pressure
•Poor drainage.

Some typical failure mechanisms for

slopes in land fills

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Gaseous Emissions Management

Landfill gas is generated as a product of waste biodegradation or on account of presence of VOCs in the
waste.
Gas generation can be reduced or eliminated by avoiding disposal of biodegradable/organic wastes.
For HW landfills where gaseous emissions are anticipated (as in the case of mixed waste having
biodegradable components), the gas management strategy shall be
(a) controlled passive venting or
(b) controlled collection and treatment/reuse.

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Surface Water Drainage System

Surface water management is required to ensure that rainwater run-off does not drain into the waste from
surrounding areas and that there is no waterlogged/ponding on covers of landfills.
A surface water drainage system comprising of channels, drains, culverts and basins

Surface water drainage

system for a
completed landfill

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A surface water drainage system shall be designed to ensure the following:

Diversion of External Runoff Drainage Channels on Restored Landfill

•Rainwater flowing from areas outside the landfill Drainage structures should be designed to:
must be intercepted. •accommodate landfill settlement,
•Diversion channels should direct runoff away from •resist erosion, and
operational areas. •withstand local storm conditions.
•Channels may require low-permeability lining to
prevent leakage into the landfill. Surface Slope of Final Cover
•The final cover surface should have a 3–5% slope for proper
Rainfall on Active Tipping Areas drainage.
•Rainwater falling on active waste disposal areas •Side slopes will generally be steeper, depending on slope stability
becomes contaminated. requirements.
•This water must be collected and treated as leachate Design of Drainage Structures
through: •Interceptor channels
• Leachate collection drains •Drainage channels
• Leachate collection sumps •Stormwater settling ponds
• Leachate treatment systems. These systems must be designed using hydrological and meteorological
data.
Drainage from Completed Landfill Phases
Separation of Clean Water and Leachate
•Rainfall on closed or completed landfill phases should
•Stormwater drainage systems and leachate collection systems must
be:
remain completely separate.
• diverted through drainage channels, and
•Mixing should be avoided during both:
• directed to settling ponds to remove
• Active landfill operation, and
suspended solids before discharge.
• Post-closure period.

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Base Stability, Slope Stability and Seismic Aspects

For landfills constructed on loose/soft soil, the
base will be checked for stability against bearing
failure or excessive settlements.
The stability of side slopes of a landfill shall be
checked for the following cases.
ü Stability of excavated slopes.
ü Stability of liner system along excavated
slopes
ü Stability of temporary waste slopes
constructed to their full height (usually at the
end of a phase)
ü Stability of slopes of above-ground portion of
completed landfills.
ü Stability of cover systems in above ground
landfills.

Some typical failure mechanisms for

slopes in land fills

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Material Balance
A material balance shall be prepared for each material required for construction of a landfill, phase-by-
phase, indicating materials required, material available and deficient material to be imported or surplus
material to be exported. If a borrow area is located within the landfill site it shall not become a part of an
early phase to avoid stockpiling and double handling.

Site Infrastructure
The following site infrastructure shall be provided at each HW landfill:
ü Site Entrance and Fencing.
ü Administrative and Site Control Offices
ü Access Roads
ü Waste Inspection and Sampling Facility.
ü Equipment Workshops and Garages.
ü Signs and Directions
ü Water Supply
ü Lighting
ü Vehicle Cleaning Facility
ü Fire Fighting Equipment

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Site entrance infrastructure should include:

• A permanent, wide, entrance road with separate entry and exit lanes and gates.
• Sufficient length/parking space inside the entrance gate till the weighbridge to prevent queuing of vehicles
outside the entrance gate and onto the highway.
• A properly landscaped entrance area with a green belt of 20m containing tree plantation for good visual impact.
• Proper direction signs and lighting at the entrance gate.
• A perimeter fencing of atleast 2m height all around the landfill site with lockable gates to prevent unauthorized
access.
• Full time security guard at the site.

ü An accurate record of waste inputs is essential, hence good quality weighbridges shall be used.
ü For sites receiving more than 400 tons per day of waste, twin weigh bridges to weigh both entry and exit weights
may be located on either side of an island on which a weighbridge office room is located.
ü The weighbridge office should be elevated and the weighbridge operators should be able to see entering vehicles as
well as speak to drivers.

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Environmental Monitoring System

Monitoring at a landfill site shall be
carried out in four zones
ü On and within the landfill;
ü In the unsaturated subsurface
zone (vadose zone) beneath and
around the landfill;
ü In the groundwater (saturated)
zone beneath and around the
landfill and
ü !n the atmosphere/local air
above and around the landfill.

Typical landfill Instrumentation

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The parameters to be monitored regularly are :

ü long-term movements of the landfill cover;
ü leachate head within the landfill;
ü leachate quality within the landfill;
ü gas quality (optional) within the landfill;
ü quality of pore fluid in the vadose zone;
ü quality of pore gas (optional) in the vadose zone:
ü quality of groundwater in the saturated zones and
ü air quality above the landfill, at the gas control facilities, at buildings on or near the landfill and along
any preferential migration paths.

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The indicators of leachate quality and landfill gas quality must be decided after conducting a study
relating to
ü the type of the waste,
ü the probable composition of leachate and gas likely to be generated and
ü the geotechnical as well as hydro-geological features of the area.

A monitoring programme must specify

ü a properly selected offsite testing laboratory capable of measuring the constituents at current
detection levels
ü a methodology for acquiring and storing data; and
ü a statistical procedure for analyses of the data.

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The following instruments/equipment shall be used for monitoring:

ü Groundwater samples for groundwater monitoring wells.
ü Leachate samplers for leachate monitoring within the landfill and at the leachate tank.
ü Vacuum lysimeters, filter tip samplers, free drainage samplers for leakage detection beneath landfill
liners.
ü Surface water samplers for collection of sample from sedimentation basin.
ü Downhole water quality sensors for measuring conductivity, pH, DO, temperature in leachate wells,
groundwater wells and sedimentation basins.
ü Landfill gas monitors (portable) for onsite monitoring of landfill gases.
ü Active and passive air samplers for monitoring ambient air quality.

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It is recommended that the location of each

type of instrument/equipment be finalized in
conjunction with an expert on the basis of the
topography of the area and the layout of the
landfill.
A minimum of 4 sets of ground water
monitoring wells (one up-gradient and three
down gradient) for sampling in each acquifer are
considered desirable at each landfill site

Ground water monitoring wells around a landfill

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Closure and Post-Closure Maintenance Plan

A statement on the end-use of landfill site is an essential part of the plan for landfill closure and post-
closure maintenance.
Some possible uses of closed landfill sites near urban centres include parking area, recreational area etc.
A closed landfill should be aesthetically landscaped.
A closure and post-closure plan for HW landfills must be evolved and should indicate the following
components:
ü Plan for vegetative stabilization of the final landfill cover and side slopes
ü Plan for management of surface water run-off with an effective drainage system
ü Plan for periodical inspection and maintenance of landfill cover and facilities
ü Plan for post-closure management of leachate and gas
ü Plan for post-closure environment monitoring

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Waste Acceptance Criteria

A waste acceptance criterion shall be formulated for each landfill site.

The following guidelines for waste acceptance are suggested:
ü All waste shall be routinely accepted if the truck/tipper carries authorized documents indicating he
source and type of waste. Such waste shall be routinely inspected visually at the tipping area in the
landfill site.
ü Bulk or non-containerised liquid hazardous waste or slurry-type hazardous waste containing free
liquid or waste sludge, which has not been dewatered, shall not be placed in landfills. Such waste,
(usually transported in pipelines) shall be placed in Hazardous Waste Impoundments designed
specifically for liquid hazardous waste.
ü Incinerable/compostable waste or any other type of waste from which energy/material recovery is
feasible, shall not be placed in HW landfills.
ü Incompatible wastes shall not be placed in the same landfill unit. Compatible wastes will be
grouped together and placed in the same landfill unit (each such unit shall have its own phase, cells
etc.) Incompatible waste group shall be accommodated in separate landfill units (each such unit
shall have its own phases, cells etc).

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ü Wastes which are incompatible with the liner material shall either be containerized and placed in
the landfill (enduring adequate container safety, or placed in a separate landfill unit made of
alternate compatible liner material).
ü Extremely hazardous waste (e.g. radioactive waste) shall not be disposed off in HW landfills but in
specially designed waste disposal units.
ü Non-hazardous waste (e.g. municipal solid waste) shall not be deposited in HW landfills. However
such waste can be deposited in a MSW landfill units in the vicinity of HW landfills.
ü Residue of treated biomedical waste (e.g. incinerator ash etc.) can be deposited in HW landfills.

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Construction and Operational Criteria

The construction and operation of a landfill shall consist of the following steps:
ü Site Development
ü Phase Development
ü Phase Operation
ü Phase Closure
ü Landfill Closure
ü Post-closure vegetative stabilization

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Site Development

The following construction activities shall be undertaken during site development.

ü Construction of perimeter fence, entrance gate and green belt.
ü Construction of main access road near the entrance gate with parking area.
ü Construction of road along the perimeter of the site as well as constructed of arterial road to tipping
area of the first phase.
ü Acquisition and installation of weighbridges.
ü Construction of weighbridge room/office, administrative office and site control office.
ü Construction of waste inspection facility equipment workshop and garage, vehicle cleaning area.
ü Installation of direction signs, site lighting, fire fighting facilities, communication facilities.
ü Construction of water supply and wastewater / sewage disposal system.
ü Construction of surface water drainage system.
ü Construction of main leachate pipe, tank and treatment facility.
ü Installation of environmental monitoring facilities.
ü Construction of gas collection pipe and treatment facility (if needed)
ü Construction of waste recovery/incineration/ waste processing facility (if so planned)
ü Construction of emergency exit gate.

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Site Procedures: Record Keeping and Waste Inspection

Record keeping procedure as well as waste acceptance procedures to be followed at the landfill site shall be
formulated.
Records shall be kept on a daily, weekly and monthly basis.
In addition a site Manual shall be kept at the site office giving all site investigation, design and construction details –
these are necessary as landfill design may get modified during the operational phase.

Site Manual:
The site manual shall contain the following information.
ü Data collected during site selection
ü Environmental impact assessment report
ü Site investigation and characterization data
ü Detailed topographical map
ü Design of all landfill components
ü Landfill layout and its phases
ü Construction plans
ü Details of leachate management plan
ü Details of gas management plan (optional)
ü Environmental monitoring programme
ü Closure and post-closure plan
ü All permissions/licenses from concerned authorities

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Site Reports :
The daily, weekly and monthly reports shall comprise of the following:
ü Weighbridge data (daily inflow and outflow for each vehicle)
ü Waste inspection data (daily)
ü Materials, stores etc. (daily)
ü Bills/accounts (daily)
ü Visitor record (daily)
ü Complaints record from nearby areas (daily)
ü Topographic survey at operating phase (daily/weekly)
ü Photographic record at operating phase (daily/weekly)
ü Environmental monitoring data (weekly/monthly)
ü Waste filling plan and actual progress i.e. cell construction (daily/weekly) and review (monthly)
ü Leachate generation and gas generation (weekly / monthly / extreme events).
ü Weather/climatic date (extreme events)
ü Accidents etc.
ü Others

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Vehicle Inspection:
Each vehicle carrying the waste shall be checked for:
ü Incoming weight (full)
ü Outgoing weight (empty)
ü Availability of relevant documents
ü Visual check at weigh-in (if feasible)
ü Visual inspection after discharge at tipping area (inspection report to be filed for each vehicle).
• A visual inspection checklist must be framed which should list visual features for identification of unacceptable
material.
• This checklist shall be filled for every unloading by a vehicle in tipping area at the working phase in the landfill.

If there is reason to doubt the presence of unacceptable waste, the vehicle shall be taken to the waste inspection
facility, the waste down-loaded, inspected visually and sampled (if necessary). Vehicles having non- conforming waste
shall be held-up and matter reported to engineer or manger at site.

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Phase Development

Development of each phase shall be done in stages. These stages are;

ü Clearing the area for all shrubs and vegetation,
ü Excavation (if required),
ü Stockpiling of excavated material and material imported from borrow area,
ü Leveling of base and side slopes of landfill and achieving desirable grades at the base of the landfill,
ü Construction of embankment and temporary berms along the perimeter of the phase,
ü Construction of temporary surface water drains,
ü Installation of monitoring instruments,
ü Liner Construction
ü Leachate collection and removal system.

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Phase Operation
At the design stage, the phases of a landfill are clearly demarcated.
Operation of a phase requires planning and execution of daily activities
ü daily waste filling plan and demarcation,
ü waste discharge and inspection,
ü waste placement,
ü waste compaction,
ü daily covering of waste,
ü prevention of pollution and fires.

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Daily waste filling plan and demarcation at site :

ü On the completion of a phase and before the start of a new phase, a waste filling plan for daily cells
shall be evolved.
• A study of the landfill base contour maps and the final cover levels of the phase allows such a
plan to be developed.
ü If a phase is to be operational for 365 days, all 365 cells must be marked in plan and in sectional
drawings. These may require revision as landfill is constructed because waste quantities may vary in
an unforeseen manner.
ü The area and height proposed to be filled every day should be demarcated at the site on a daily or
weekly basis using temporary markers or bunds.

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Waste discharge and inspection :

ü Waste shall be discharged by tipping at the working area of a landfill, within the area demarcated for
the cell.
ü Every discharged load shall be visually inspected by a designated operator.
ü Working area personnel shall be trained and competent at waste identification in order that they can
recognize waste which may be non- conforming.
ü In the event of reasonable doubt as to the waste acceptability, the operator shall be inform the waste
reception facility and/or the site manager immediately and the consignment shall be isolated pending
further inspection.

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Waste placement (spreading) and compaction :

Once waste has been discharged it shall be spread in layers and compacted in a well defined manner to ensure that
the completed slopes of a daily cell are at the designed gradients.

Waste placement (spreading) can be done by the following methods:

a. Face tipping method : Waste is deposited on top of existing surface and spread horizontally by tipping over an
advancing face.
b. Inclined layering method (onion skin tipping) : Similar to face tipping method but inclined layering (gentle slope)
done instead of advancing of face.
c. Working upwards : Waste is deposited on the lower surface and pushed upwards.

It is necessary to level and compact the waste as soon as it is discharged at the working area.

Steel wheeled mobile landfill compactors (smooth / cleated / spiked / special wheels) are generally accepted as the
best equipment for this purpose.

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Daily / Weekly Cover:

ü Daily / Weekly cover (optional) is primarily used for prevention windblown dust, litter and odours, deterrence to
scavengers, birds, reduction of infiltration (during unseasonal rain) and in improving the site’s visual appearance.
ü Soil used as daily / weekly cover shall give a pleasing uniform appearance from the site boundary. To achieve this
a thickness of about 150 mm is usually adequate and shall be adopted.

Operation in Monsoons:
ü During monsoon month, high rainfall results in excessive generation of leachate. Hence, before the onset of
monsoons, the phase must be capped with a cover.
ü Waste received during monsoon months shall be stockpiled in temporary holding area (covered).
ü Alternatively special “monsoon phases” may be designed with the high leachate holding capacity and operated
using daily covers / temporary covers.

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Pollution Prevention and Safety During Operation

The following measures are needed to ensure that the landfill operation shall not adversely affect local
environment within and outside the landfill.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] Control
[Link] and Other Pests
[Link]
[Link] on the Road
[Link] Fire Management
[Link] Safety Aspects

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Phase Closure
ü After the last set of cells of a phase are placed (on the highest lift), an intermediate or final cover shall
be constructed.
• If another phase is to be placed over the just completed phase, an intermediate cover is provided.
• If the just completed phase has reached the final height of the landfill, the final cover system and
surface water drainage system is provided.
ü An intermediate cover shall be made of locally available soil (preferably low permeability) and is 45 to
60 cm thick.
• It is compacted with smooth steel drum rollers and provided a suitable gradient (3 to 5 %) to
encourage surface water to run-off from the cover and thus minimize infiltration.
• The side slopes of the intermediate cover are compacted by the tracked dozer moving up and
down the slope.

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Landfill Closure
As each phase is completed and as the final cover level is reached in successive phases, the following
interconnectivities are established.
ü the leachate collection system of each phase is sequentially connected (if so designed)
ü the surface water drainage system at the cover of each phase is sequentially connected (if so
designed)
ü the temporary surface water drainage system constructed at the base of each completed phase is
dismantled.
ü The gas collection system (if provided) of each phase is sequentially connected.
Upon completing of all phases a final check is made of the proper functioning of all inter connected
systems.
An access road is provided on the landfill cover to enable easy approach for routine inspection of the
landfill cover.

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Post Closure Vegetative Stabilization (Long Term)

ü If a landfill cover is intended to be used for a specific purpose e.g. park or vehicle parking area, then
the cover shall be stabilized in such a manner that the end-use is achieved.
ü However, if no specific end-use is envisaged, then long term vegetative stabilization will be
undertaken to return the land to its original and natural vegetative landform.
ü Vegetation is by far the most common and usually the preferred stabilization option after closure of
landfills.
ü If a self-perpetuating vegetative cover can be established, not only can wind and water erosion be
minimized, but also the landfill can be returned to some resemblance of its original appearance and
land use.
ü In favorable climates, revegetation may require only modest effort or may occur by natural process
during a reasonably short period of time.
ü However, in arid climates or a harsh environment, establishment of vegetation may be a difficult and
costly process and alternative techniques may be examined for vegetation stabilization.

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While the specific procedures are unique to each landfill and climatic regime, the following representative
elements of the process shall be adopted in all procedures.
Seedbed Preparation:
ü Seedbed preparation is necessary to set the stage for establishment of the short-term community.
ü Initial operations shall include grading, furrowing or grouping to enhance microclimate and addition to
nutrients and soil amendments, if required.
Short – Term Vegetation:
It is common practice, in both humid and dry environments, to rely largely on grasses for the primary initial
source of short – term land cover.
Usually several species are included in the initial seeding mixture to increase diversity and reduce the
chance of total community failure.
Short term vegetation is usually assisted by irrigation.

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Long term vegetation:

ü To achieve the ultimate goal of attaching a self sustained and stable community, a transition between
short term and long term vegetation must occur.
• In some cases, this may be left to invasion by native species after short term vegetation is assured
and soil development is well under way.
• In other cases – for example, when irrigation has been used temporarily to establish the short term
community – it may be necessary or desirable to enhance the natural succession process by
replanting with a more diverse mix of species suited to the next stage of community succession,
such as shrubs.
ü The need for artificial enhancement of the successional process shall depend on the success of
previous short term efforts and on the ultimate intends land use of the reclaimed area.
ü All vegetation efforts, however, shall work towards self generation and minimum management in the
long term.

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Figure illustrates the sequential

steps in vegetation growth after
landfill closure.

Long - term vegetative stabilization of closed landfill

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Inspection, Monitoring & Record Keeping Criteria

During Construction of Liners and Covers
ü During the construction of liners and covers, inspection shall be carried by the SPCB/PCC (or its
nominee) atleast twice during each phase to ensure that construction procedures and quality control
procedures are being followed.
ü Immediately upon the completion of construction of a liner in each phase, the complete set of
construction records and quality control test results will be provided by the owner/operator to the
SPCB/PCC for verification and record keeping. The same will also be done upon the completion of cover
system in each phase.

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During Operation

The owner/operator shall monitor and keep a record of the following in the operation period.
ü Functioning of the leachate management system (including levels in leachate holding tank) (weekly)
ü Functioning of the surface water run-off system (weekly)
ü Functioning of the gas management system (if any) (weekly)
ü Waste filling records shall be kept on daily basis
ü Environmental monitoring shall be done 1 to 2 times a month, and all parameters shall be recorded and
compared with the permissible limits provided by the SPCB/PCC.
ü After a major storm, the occurrence of the storm and functioning of various systems shall be recorded.
The SPCB/PCC (or its nominee) shall inspect all facilities atleast twice a year. The owner/operator shall provide a copy
of the environmental monitoring record to the SPCB/PCC on a yearly basis.

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During Closure and Post Closure Period

ü Period inspection and routine maintenance at a closed landfill site shall be carried out for a period of
30 years after closure.
ü The SPCB/PCC shall inspect all facilities during the closure and post closure period atleast once a year.
The owner/operator shall provide a copy of the environmental monitoring record to the SPCB/PCC
once a year.
ü The components such as cover system, Surface Water Drainage System, Gas and Leachate
Management Systems of a closed landfill shall be inspected visually after landfill closure to confirm
that all functional elements are working satisfactorily and inspection report will be recorded.
ü A maintenance schedule with specified reporting formats is drawn up after each inspection.

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Cover System:
The final cover is inspected 2 to 4 times a year
ü to check that vegetation growth is occurring satisfactorily and that plants are not showing stunted
growth,
ü to detect if any erosion gullies have been formed thereby exposing the barrier layers,
ü to earmark depressions that may have developed with time and
ü to identify ponding of water on the landfill cover.
Atleast one inspection shall be carried out during or immediately after the peak of the monsoon season.
Closed landfills show significant settlement. Rectification measures shall not only re-establish the initial
slope of the cover (for proper surface water run-off) but shall also ensure that all the components of the
landfill cover system continue to perform as originally envisaged.
Site managers shall have sufficient equipment and funds to periodically carry out maintenance work in
the form of soil filling, re-grading the cover and revegetating the landfill cap.
In areas where extensive erosion gully formation is observed, filling of cover material, regarding of cover
slopes and re-vegetation must be routinely undertaken.

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Surface Water Drainage System:

The surface water drainage system is also inspected 2 to 4 times a year
ü identify cracks in drains due to settlements,
ü to delineate clogged drains requiring immediate clean-up and
ü to study the level of deposited soil in the storm water basin and initiate excavation measures.
Broken pipes and extensively cracked drains may require replacement after filling soil beneath them to
establish slopes for gravity flow.
In extreme cases where long-term settlement shall be excessive, it shall become necessary to make
sumps and operate storm water pumps for removal of accumulated water in the drainage system.

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Gas and Leachate Management Systems:

A weekly operating record of leachate and gas management systems shall be kept in the post-closure
period.
Periodic inspection of the leachate and gas collection systems (2 to 4 times a year) is undertaken to
identify broken pipes, leaking gas (if any) and damaged or clogged wells/sumps.
Repair work requires skilled manpower and shall be carried out by the agencies operating the gas
treatment and leachate treatment facilities.
One may often have to install new gas extraction wells and leachate collection wells if the
damage/clogged facilities are inaccessible and irreparable.

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Environmental Monitoring Systems

ü Ground water monitoring wells, air quality monitoring systems and vadose zone monitoring
instruments shall be periodically inspected 2-4 times a year to check that all systems are functioning
satisfactorily and that well caps and sampling ports are not subjected to damage due to excessive
settlement or vandalism.
ü Environmental monitoring systems have to be maintained during the entire post- closure period.
ü Wherever possible, monitoring instruments must be periodically re-calibrated.
ü Sampling devices shall be routinely detoxified and also regularly checked for proper functioning of
the opening and closing of valves or spring loaded mechanisms.

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Post-Closure Criteria
ü After closure of the landfill, the owner/operator of the landfill shall maintain the integrity of the
final cover systems including making repair, as necessary, to rectify the settlement, subsidence or
erosion of the cover.
ü After closure of the landfill, the owner/operator shall continue to operate all leachate, gas and
surface water management systems as well as continue environmental monitoring of the landfill for
a period of 30 years or until such time that harmful leachate is not produced for 5 continuous years.
ü If after a few years of closure, the leachate is observed to meet all discharge standards, the same
shall be discharged directly to lined drains.
ü The landfill shall be abandoned after 30 years of closure, if concentrations of contaminants in all
liquid and gaseous emissions from the landfill are observed to be below prescribed limits. However,
if the emissions continue to be hazardous, the landfill management strategy shall have to be
evolved for future years.

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Financial Assurance Criteria

The owner/operator shall prepare detailed financial estimates for the following:
a) the fixed initial cost for setting up the landfill facility
b) the recurring annual costs for operating the facilities
c) the cost of hiring a third party to close the landfill
d) the cost of hiring a third party to conduct post-closure care for 30 years after closure of the landfill
e) the cost of hiring a third party to undertake corrective action in case of an emergency resulting in
loss of ecology due to the failure of the system during the active, closure and post-closure periods.

The owner/operator shall demonstrate the funds needed for (c), (d) and (e) above will be available
whenever they are needed in the form of options such as trust funds, surety bonds, letter of credit,
insurance etc.

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Contingency Plan for Emergencies

The owner/operator of a HW landfill shall prepare a contingency plan listing procedures to be executed
immediately whenever there is fire, explosion or unexpected release of hazardous waste at the landfill
site during the active period as well as during the closure and post-closure periods. Such a contingency
plan shall be approved by the SPCB/PCC.

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Single composite liner system

91

Double composite liner system

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Cover system

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Deep Well Injection of Hazardous Wastes

Many industries generate liquid hazardous wastes, such as:
•acids
•solvents
•pharmaceutical wastes
•pesticide solutions
•metal plating wastes

These wastes cannot always be disposed in landfills or discharged into rivers because they may contaminate soil and
water.

Therefore, one alternative method is Deep Well Injection

Definition: Deep well injection is the disposal of liquid hazardous waste by injecting it into deep underground
geological formations that are isolated from drinking water sources

Key Concept:
The injected waste is stored in permeable rock formations located thousands of feet below the surface.

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Basic Principle of Deep Well Injection

Deep well injection relies on geological containment.

For this method to work safely, three important geological conditions must exist:

1. Injection Zone 2. Confining Layers 3. Depth

A geological layer that has: The injection zone must be surrounded The injection zone must be located
•high permeability by thick impermeable layers (cap rocks). below the lowest underground
•high porosity These layers prevent the upward source of drinking water.
This allows injected liquids to migration of contaminants. This ensures protection of
spread within the formation. groundwater.

Typical depth
Injection zones may be 1700 ft to more than 10,000 ft below the ground surface

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Structure of an Injection Well

A deep injection well consists of multiple concentric pipes.
Main Components
Surface casing: The outermost pipe Cementing
Functions: Cement is placed between the casing and the
•extends below the drinking water aquifer surrounding rock.
•cemented to the surface Purpose:
•prevents contamination of groundwater • prevent leakage
• prevent vertical migration
Long casing
A second casing extending to the injection zone. • isolate the injection zone
It is also cemented to seal the formation above the
injection zone.
Injection tubing
The inner pipe through which the waste liquid is injected.

This design ensures multiple containment barriers.

Injection wells use multiple casing and cement barriers to isolate hazardous waste from groundwater.

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Waste Preparation Before Injection

Before injection, waste may undergo basic treatment or preparation.

At the facility, wastes are typically stored in large tanks where they may be:
•blended
•diluted
•filtered
Filtering is especially important because suspended solids can plug the well.

Examples of wastes injected

•caustic chemicals
•volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
•semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs)
•fuels
•explosives
•pharmaceutical wastes
•pesticide solutions

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Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program

The major environmental concern with deep well injection is:
Groundwater contamination
To prevent this, the Safe Drinking Water Act (1974) established the Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program.

Purpose of the UIC program The UIC program regulates:

To ensure injection wells: •site selection
•do not contaminate drinking water •well construction
•operate safely •operation
•follow strict design and monitoring standards •monitoring
•testing
•reporting
•closure

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Classification of Injection Wells

Injection wells are divided into five classes. Examples of restricted
ü Reactive cyanides
Class I Wells
ü Reactive sulfides
Used for disposal of:
ü Flashpoint (e.g., must be
•hazardous industrial waste
greater than 100°C or 212°F)
•non-hazardous industrial waste
ü PCBs
•municipal wastewater
ü Radioactive wastes
Industries using Class I wells include: ü Shock-sensitive wastes
•petroleum refineries ü Infectious wastes
•chemical industries
These wells inject waste below the lowest drinking water aquifer.
•pharmaceutical industries
•metal production industries Class II Wells
•food processing industries Used in the oil and gas industry.
Examples of wastes injected: When oil is extracted, large amounts of saltwater brine are produced.
•hydrochloric acid Brine:
•sulfuric acid •is often saltier than seawater
•nitric acid •may contain toxic metals
•phosphoric acid •cannot be discharged to surface water
•metal plating solutions Therefore it is injected underground.
Some Class II wells also help in enhanced oil recovery.

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Class III Wells

Used in mining operations.
A liquid called lixiviant is injected into underground ore deposits.
The fluid dissolves minerals such as:
•uranium
•copper
•salt
The solution is pumped back to the surface for mineral extraction.

Class IV Wells
These wells inject hazardous or radioactive waste into formations containing drinking water.
Such wells are prohibited because they pose serious environmental risks.
They are allowed only for approved cleanup operations.
Class V Wells
A miscellaneous category that includes wells not falling into the previous classes.
Examples include:
•septic systems
•stormwater drainage wells
•geothermal wells
•aquifer recharge wells
•agricultural drainage wells

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Environmental Risks of Deep Well Injection

Despite strict regulation, deep well injection can pose risks.

Major contamination pathways

[Link] well construction
[Link] through casing
[Link] wells acting as migration pathways
[Link] in confining rock
[Link] above drinking water aquifers
Injected liquids may move through faults, fractures,
or poorly sealed wells and contaminate groundwater

Environmental safety depends on:

•proper site selection
•well construction
•monitoring systems

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Practical Limitations of Deep Well Injection

Several factors may limit the feasibility of this method.

Geological limitations Chemical limitations

• unsuitable formations Injected waste must be chemically compatible with:
• seismic activity • well materials
• fractured rocks • formation water
• surrounding rock

Operational limitations Corrosion issues

High suspended solids may cause: Highly corrosive wastes may damage:
• plugging of injection equipment • casing
• clogging of formation pores • injection tubing
• surrounding rock layers
Therefore wastes are often neutralized before injection.

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Site Investigation Requirements

Before constructing an injection well, detailed studies are required.

These include:
• geological surveys
• hydrogeological studies
• aquifer characterization
• modeling of contaminant migration
This ensures that injected wastes remain confined within the injection zone.

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Summary
Deep well injection is an important method for disposing liquid hazardous wastes when:
• suitable geological formations exist
• proper well design is used
• strict monitoring and regulation are followed
However, environmental safety depends heavily on site selection, engineering design, and regulatory compliance.

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