Table of contents

1 PN junction diode and Rectifiers 1

1.0.1 Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.0.2 Zener voltage as a regulator: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Chapter 1

PN junction diode and Rectifiers

*************************** Prepared by*************************************************

Subject: Semiconductor Devices and Circuits, CSE
[Link] Professor,ECE
GRIET, Hyderabad
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Syllubus of unit -1 PN JUNCTION DIODE AND I-V characteristics
Diode resistance
Diode capacitance
Ideal, Simplified and Piece wise linear model of a diode
C Half-wave rectifier
Full wave rectifier center tap
Full wave Bridge rectifier
Zener diode and its characteristics
Capacitor filter for Rectifier
Clippers and clampers
PN junction diode If a junction is formed between a sample of P-type and n-type semi-
conductor, this combination possess the characteristics of a rectifier is known as a diode.
The symbol of a diode is shown in Fig.1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Symbol of a PN junction diode

2 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

Fig. 1.2 A schematic diagram of a PN junction including charge density, Electric field
intensity, potential barrier from P to N side and Potential barrier from n to P side

Quantitative theory of the P-N junction diode

If donor impurities are added on one side and acceptor ions into the other side of a crystal
of semi-conductor say germnium, a PN junction is formed. The donor ions schematically
represented by a plus sign because after it donates one electron, it becomes a positive [Link]
acceptor ion is indicated by a minus sign because, after this atom accepts an electron, it
becomes a negative ion. Initially there are only positive carriers to the left of the junction and
only n-type carriers to the right.
As a result of the displacement of these charges, an electric field will appear across the
junction. The electric charges are confined to the neighborhood of junction and consists of
immobile ions. The positive holes which neutralized the acceptor ions near the PN junction
is disappeared as a result of combination of electrons which have diffused across the junction.
Similarly,the neutralizing electrons in the n-type Ge have disappeared as a result of holes
 3

which have crossed from the P junction. Since the region of the junction is depleted of
carriers, it is called depletion region or space-charge region.
The field intensity curve is proportional to the integral of the charge density curve. This
statement follows from Poisson’s equation

d 2V ρ
2
=− (1.1)
dx ε
The electric field intensity is the negative integral of the charge density
dV
Z
ρ
E =− = dx (1.2)
dx ε
The potential barrier is obtained by integrating the electric feild
Z
V= Edx (1.3)

In this ρ represnts the charge density and ε denotes the permittivity of semiconductor material.
E is the Electric feild intensity. The electrostatic-potential variation in the depletion region
is shown in Fig.1.2 is the negative integral of the function [Link] variation constitutes a
potential-energy barrier against the further diffusion of holes across the [Link] form of
the potential-energy barrier against the flow of holes from the p side across the junction is
shown in Fig.1.2.d. The form of the potential-energy barrier against the flow of electrons
from the n side across the junction is shown in Fig.1.2.e.
Open circuited condition
Under open-circuited conditions, the net hole current must be zero. An electric field must
build up across the junction in such a direction that a hole drift current will tend to flow across
the junction from the n to the p side in order to counterbalance the diffusion [Link]
height of the potential barrier, Vo , refers to the electric potential difference that opposes the
movement of majority carriers (electrons in the n region and holes in the p region) across the
junction.
PN junction under Forward Bias
An external voltage is applied such that the positive terminal of the battery is connected to
the p side and the negative terminal is connected to the n side of the diode. The equilibrium
initially established between the forces tending to produce the diffusion of majority carriers
and the restraining influence of the potential barrier at the junction will be reduced by the

Fig. 1.3 A PN junction biased in Forward bias

4 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

applied voltage V. A current flows in the circuit.

 V 
I = Io e ηVT − 1 (1.4)

Where, Io is the reverse saturation current

I is the forward current
V is the forward voltage
VT is 0.026 Volts
The positive V means the diode is forward biased. It indicates that the postitive terminal of
the battery is connected to P type of the semiconductor and negative terminal of the battery
is connected to N side. The η is 1 for Ge and 2 for the silicon.
PN junction under Reverse Bias: In the reverse bias condition, the negative terminal of
the diode is connected to the P side of the junction, and the positive terminal of the diode is
connected to the N side of the junction. The polarity of the connection is such as to cause
both the holes in p-type and electrons in n-type to move away from the junction. Therefore,
the barrier potential increases by the applied potential V. So, there is little current flowing in
the circuit. It is called reverse saturation current due to minority carriers and is denoted by I0 .
2. I V characteristics of a diode The volt ampere characterestics of diode

Fig. 1.4 The volt-ampere characteresic of PN junction diode (a) Forward bias current repre-
sented in mA and reverse bias is represented in mA (b)Forward bias current represented in
mA and reverse bias is represented in µA

The volt-ampere characterestics are divided into two parts.

1. Forward bias characteristics of diode

2. Reverse bias characteristics of diode

Forward bias characteristics of diode:

In the forward bias below cut-in voltage the current is zero. The cut-in voltage of the
Ge is 0.3 and for Si it is 0.7. Above the cut-in voltage, the current exponentially increases
with the voltage.
 5

Reverse bias characteristics of diode:

The reverse current is called reverse saturation current Io , because it is independent of the
applied reverse voltage. Consequently, the current is called the reverse saturation current.
In order to display forward and reverse characteristics conveniently, two diifferent current
scales are used in Fig.1.4. The dashed portion of the curve indicates that at a reverse bias
voltage Vz , the diode characterestic exhibit an abrupt and marked departure from Eq.1.4. At
this critical voltage, a large current flows and the diode is said to be in the breakdown region.

3. Diode resistance

There are three types of Diode resistances. They are

1. DC or static resistance

2. AC or dynamic resistance

3. Average AC resistance

DC or static resistance The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconduc-

tor diode will re sult in an operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change
with time. The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found simply by finding
the corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.5 Determination of a DC resistance

VD
RD = (1.5)
ID

AC or Dynamic resistance
A straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown in Fig. 1.7 will
define a particular change in voltage and current that can be used to determine the dynamic
resistance for this region of the diode characteristics. The dynamic resistance rd is given by
∆VD
rd = (1.6)
∆ID
6 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

Fig. 1.6 Determination of a AC resistance

Average AC resistance
If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing such as indicated in Fig. 1.30,

Fig. 1.7 Determination of a Average AC resistance

the resistance associated with the device for this region is called the average ac resistance.
The average ac resistance is, by definition, the resistance determined by a straight line drawn
between the two intersections established by the maximum and minimum values of input
voltage. The average ac resistance rac is given by
∆VD
rac = | (1.7)
∆ID pt to pt
[Link] capacitance of a diode P type material serves as positive plate of capacitor,
N type material serve as negative plate of capacitor and the depletion region serves as the
 7

dielectric material The junction capacitance of a diode is two types.

1. Depletion capacitance (occurs in reverse bias)

2. Diffusion capacitance (occurs in forward bias)

Transition capacitance or depletion capacitance
It occurs in reverse bias condition. The barrier potential at the junction increases with increase
in reverse voltage. The change in the charge at the junction with change in reverse voltage is
a capacitive effect known as a transition capacitance.
εA
CT = (1.8)
W
Hence, the depletion capacitance is directly proportional to the permittivity of the semicon-
ductor material ε and the cross sectional Area A and is inversly proportional to the width of
the depletion region (W ).

It occurs in forward bias condition. The barrier potential at the junction decreases with
forward voltage. The change in the charge at the junction with change in forward voltage is a
capacitive effect known as a Diffusion capacitance.

CD = τg (1.9)
Where, τ is the mean life time of carriers and g is the conductance of the diode.
Diode Equivalent circuit
An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the
actual terminal characteristics of a device, system, or such in a particular operating region.
In other words, once the equivalent circuit is defined, the device symbol can be removed
from a schematic and the equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting
the actual behavior of the system. There are three types of Equivalent circuits.
• Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

• Simplified Equivalent circuit

• Ideal Equivalent circuit

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit
One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode is to approximate the charac-
teristics of the device by straight-line [Link] resulting equivalent circuit is naturally
called the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 1.8.
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
For most applications, the resistance rav is sufficiently small to be ignored in comparison to
the other elements of the network. The removal of rav from the equivalent circuit results the
simplified equivalent circuit shown in Fig.1.9.
8 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

Fig. 1.8 Equivalent circuit of Piecewise Linear Equivalent circuit

Fig. 1.9 Simplified Equivalent circuit

Ideal Equivalent Circuit

In ideal equivalent circuit only the device is taken in consideration ignoring VT and rav as
shown in Fig. 1.10.
Regulated Power supply
Summary of Equivalent circuits are shown in Fig.1.11.
For the operation of most of the devices in electronic equipments, a de voltage is needed.
A microcontroller requires a dc supply for its operation. Nowadays, almost all electronic
equipments include a circuit that converts ac voltage of mains supply into de voltage. This
part of the equipment is called power supply. In general, at the input of the power supply,
there is a power transformer. It is followed by a diode circuit called rectifier. The output
of the rectifier goes to a [Link], and then to a voltage regulator circuit. A block
diagram of such a power supply is shown in Fig. 1.12. The rectifier circuit is the heart of a
power supply.
Rectifiers
Rectifier is an electronic device which coverts the alternating current to pulsating dc. Recti-

Fig. 1.10 Ideal Equivalent circuit

 9

Fig. 1.11 Summary of Equivalent circuits

Fig. 1.12 Block diagram of Regulated power supply

fiers are classified according to the period of conduction.

• Half wave Rectifier

• Full wave Rectifier center tap

• Full wave Rectifier Bridge.

Fig. 1.13 Circuit diagram of Half-wave rectifier

Half-wave Rectifiers
The half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier that rectifies only half cycle of the waveform.
The main supply voltage is given to the transformer which bring the seconary voltage to the
10 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

Fig. 1.14 Input and output waveforms of a Half wave rectifier

desired value.D

iode is electronic component which will allow current in only one direction.
Working of Half Wave Rectifier
The ac input given to the rectifier will have both positive and negative cycles. The half
rectifier will allow only the positive half cycles and omit the negative half cycles.
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, the polarity of the voltage across the
secondary forward biases the diode. As a result a current IL flows through the load resistor,
RL . The forward biased diode offers a very low resistance and hence the voltage drop across
it is very small. Thus the voltage appearing across the load is practically the same as the
input voltage at every instant.
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage the polarity of the secondary voltage
gets reversed. As a result, the diode is reverse [Link] no current flows through
the circuit and almost no voltage is developed across the [Link], unidirectional
pulsating dc waveform obtained as output.
The input and output waveform of half-wave rectifier is shown in Fig.1.14.
Parameters used for Half-Wave rectifier

• Average Value:The average voltage (or current) of a periodic waveform is defined as

the the quotient of the area under the waveform with respect to time. In Half-wave
rectifier the period is 2π
. 
Vm sinwt 0 ≤ wt ≤ π
VL = (1.10)
0 π ≤ wt ≤ 2π
 11

1
Vdc = − Vm [cos π − cos 0] (1.11)
2π
Therefore,

Vm
Vdc = (1.12)
π

Vm
Im = − (1.13)
RL + rd
Where rd is the resistance of the forward-biased diode.

Im
Idc = (1.14)
π

Fig. 1.15 Input voltage of half wave rectifier

• RMS value: The term “RMS ”stands for “Root-Mean-Squared ”.“It is the amount of
AC power that produces the same heating effect as an equivalent DC power”. The
RMS value is the square root of the mean (average) value of the squared function of
the instantaneous values. The symbols used for defining an RMS value are VRMS or
IRMS .
s
2π
Z 
1
Vrms = VL2 d(wt) (1.15)
2π 0
s Z 
1 π
Vrms = Vm2 Sin2 wtd(wt) (1.16)
2π 0
12 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

Fig. 1.16 Load voltage of half wave rectifier

s Z 
1 π
Vrms = Vm2 (1 − cos2wt) (.wt) (1.17)
4π 0
r
Vm2
Vrms = [wt − sin2wt|π0 (1.18)
4π
r
Vm2
Vrms = π
 (1.19)
4
π
Therefore,
Vm
Vrms = (1.20)
2
• Ripple factor (γ) may be defined as the ratio of the root mean square (rms) value of the
ripple voltage to the absolute value of the DC component of the output voltage, usually
expressed as a percentage.
Vr,rms
γ= (1.21)
Vdc
where q
Vr,rms = Vrms2 −V 2 (1.22)
dc

Therefore, s 2
Vrms
γ= −1 (1.23)
Vdc
substitute Eqn 1.37 and 1.45 to obtain γ.
s 2
Vrms
γ= −1 (1.24)
Vdc
 13

s 2
V
mπ
γ= 
−1 (1.25)
2
V
m
r
π2
γ= −1 (1.26)
4
γ = 1.21 (1.27)

• Rectifier efficiency (η) is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the input power
from the AC supply.
DC out put power
η= (1.28)
AC input power
2 R
Idc L
η= 2
(1.29)
Irms R
L

42
I
m
η= 2
× 100 (1.30)
π 2
I
m
Therefore,
η = 40.6% (1.31)

• Peak reverse voltage or peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage that a diode can
withstand in the reverse [Link] this voltage is exceeded the diode may be destroyed.

PIV = Vm (1.32)

Advantages of Half wave rectifier:

1. Simple to implement.

2. Requires only one diode.

Disdvantages of Half wave rectifier:
1. Ripple factor is very high.

2. Rectification efficiency is poor.

3. dc output is less than Full wave rectifier.

Full wave center tap rectifier
In the case of centre-tap full wave rectifier, only two diodes are used, and are connected to
the opposite ends of a centre-tapped secondary transformer as shown in the figure below.
The centre-tap is usually considered as the ground point or the zero voltage reference point.
As shown in the figure, an ac input is applied to the primary coils of the transformer. This
input makes the secondary ends P1 and P2 become positive and negative alternately. For
the positive half of the ac signal, the secondary point D1 is positive, GND point will have
zero volt and P2 will be negative. At this instant diode D1 will be forward biased and
14 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

Fig. 1.17 Full wave center tap rectifier

diode D2 will be reverse biased. Therefore, the diode D1 will conduct and D2 will not
conduct during during the positive half cycle. Thus the current flow will be in the direction
P1-D1-C-A-B-GND. Thus, the positive half cycle appears across the load resistance RL
During the negative half cycle, the secondary ends P1 becomes negative and P2 becomes
positive. At this instant, the diode D1 will be negative and D2 will be positive with the
zero reference point being the ground, GND. Thus, the diode D2 will be forward biased and
D1 will be reverse biased. The diode D2 will conduct and D1 will not conduct during the
negative half cycle. The current flow will be in the direction P2-D2-C-A-B-GND.

Parameters used for Full-Wave rectifier

• Average Value:The average voltage (or current) of a periodic waveform is defined as

the the quotient of the area under the waveform with respect to time . In Half-wave
rectifier the period is π
. 
Vm sinwt 0 ≤ wt ≤ π
VL = (1.33)
Vm sinwt π ≤ wt ≤ 2π
Z π 
1
Vdc = Vm sinwtd(wt) (1.34)
π 0
1
Vdc = − Vm [cos wt|π0 (1.35)
π
1
Vdc = − Vm [cos π − cos 0] (1.36)
π
Therefore,
2Vm
Vdc = (1.37)
π
Vdc
Idc = − (1.38)
RL
 15

Fig. 1.18 Input and output waveforms of Full-wave center tap

2Im
Idc = (1.39)
π
• RMS value: The term “RMS ”stands for “Root-Mean-Squared ”.“It is the amount of
AC power that produces the same heating effect as an equivalent DC power”. The
RMS value is the square root of the mean (average) value of the squared function of
the instantaneous values. The symbols used for defining an RMS value are VRMS or
IRMS . s  
1
Z π
Vrms = 2
V d(wt) (1.40)
π 0 L
s  
1
Z π
Vrms = 2 2
V Sin wtd(wt) (1.41)
π 0 m
16 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

s Z 
1 π
Vrms = Vm2 (1 − cos2wt) (.wt) (1.42)
2π 0
r
Vm2
Vrms = [wt − sin2wt|π0 (1.43)
2π
r
Vm2
Vrms = π
 (1.44)
2
π
Therefore,
Vm
Vrms = √ (1.45)
2
• Ripple factor (γ) may be defined as the ratio of the root mean square (rms) value of the
ripple voltage to the absolute value of the DC component of the output voltage, usually
expressed as a percentage.
Vr,rms
q
γ= = Vrms 2 −V 2 (1.46)
Vdc dc

Therefore, s 2
Vrms
γ= −1 (1.47)
Vdc
substitute Eqn 1.37 and 1.45 to obtain γ.
s 2 s 2 r
Vrms Vm π π2
γ= −1 = √

−1 = − 1 = 0.482 (1.48)
Vdc 2 2 Vm 8

• Rectifier efficiency (η) is defined as the ratio of DC output power to the input power
from the AC supply.
DCout put power
η= (1.49)
ACinput power
2 R
Idc 2
L 8I
m
η= 2 = 2
× 100 = 81.2% (1.50)
Irms 
R
L π 2
I
m

• Peak reverse voltage or peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage that a diode can
withstand in the reverse [Link] this voltage is exceeded the diode may be destroyed. In
full wave center tap the PIV is 2Vm .

Advantages of Full wave rectifier:

1. The rectification efficiency of full-wave rectifier is double of that of a half-wave

rectifier.
 17

2. The ripple voltage is low and of higher frequency in case of full-wave rectifier so
simple filtering circuit is required.

3. Higher output voltag in case of a full-wave rectifier.

4. In a full-wave rectifier, there is no problem due to dc saturation of the core because

the dc current in the two halves of the two halves of the transformer secondary flow in
opposite directions.

Disadvantages of Full wave rectifier:

1. Peak inverse voltage is high compared to Bridge rectifier for obtaining the same output.

2. Center-tap transformer is bulky and occupies more space.

Full wave Bridge Rectifier

Bridge Rectifiers are widely used in power supplies that provide necessary DC voltage for

Fig. 1.19 Bridge Rectifier

the electronic components or devices. They can be constructed with four diodes.
During first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half cycle diodes
D1 and D3 are forward biased and current flows through D1, RL and D3. During the neg-
ative half cycle diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and current flows through D2,RL
and D4. The current in the two half cycles is in the same direction. As shown in Fig 1.20
the V1 and V2 across load resistor during positive and negative half cycle and VL is the
total load voltage. Except PIV and TUF, the parameters of bridge rectifier is same as the
full wave center tap rectifier. PIV of bridge rectifier is Vm and TUF is 81.2% respectively.
18 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

Fig. 1.20 input and output waveforms of Full wave rectifier

[Link] Parameter Half Wave Rectifier Full wave rectifier Bridge rectifier
1 Number of diodes 1 2 4
Im √Im √Im
2 RMS current 2 2 2
Im 2Im 2Im
3 Average current π π π
Vm Vm
√ Vm
√
4 RMS voltage 2 2 2
Vm 2Vm 2Vm
5 DC voltage π π π
6 Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482
7 PIV Vm 2Vm 2Vm
8 η 40.6 81.2 81.2
9 frequeny f 2f 2f

Advantages of bridge rectifier

 19

Fig. 1.21 Full wave Rectifier with a capacitor filter

1. The rectification efficiency of full-wave rectifier is double of that of a half-wave

rectifier.

2. The ripple voltage is low and so simple filtering circuit is required.

3. No centre tap transformer is required which is bulky and expensive.

4. The PIV is one half that of centre-tap rectifier. Hence bridge rectifier is highly suited
for high voltage applications.

The main disadvantage of a bridge rectifier is that it needs four diodes, two of which conduct
in alternate half-cycles. Because of this the total voltage drop in diodes becomes double of
that in case of centre-tap rectifier, losses are increased and rectification efficiency is somewhat
reduced.
Fiters

A rectifier converts sinusoidal ac voltage into pulsating dc. Apart from the dc component,
this pulsating dc voltage will have unwanted ac component called ripple. The ripple factor
for Full wave rectifier is 0.48. The ripple factor should be as low as 0.01. The performance
of regulated power supply will be improved if the unwanted ac or ripple is removed. To
remove unwanted ac, we use filter circuits. The filter is a device that blocks the ac component
of the rectifier output and allow the dc to reach the load.
The filter circuit can be constructed by the combination of components like capacitors,
resistors, and inductors. Inductor is used as it allows only dc components to pass and blocks
ac signals. Capacitor is used so as to block the dc and allows ac to pass.
Capacitor Fiters

When this filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter capacitor (C1) must be short and
the RC discharge time must be long to eliminate ripple action. In other words, the capacitor
must charge up fast, preferably with no discharge at all. Better filtering also results when the
input frequency is high; therefore, the full-wave rectifier output is easier to filter than that of
the half-wave rectifier because of its higher frequency.
20 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

Fig. 1.22 Output of a Full-wave rectifier with shunt capacitance filter

Derivation of ripple factor of a Capacitor Fiters

When the rectifier output voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage
Vm at point B. After the capacitor has charged to its peak value, the diode will cut off, and
the capacitor will start to discharge through the load resistance. Since the discharge time
constant is longer, the capacitor discharges very slowly and reaches the point C. When the
input voltage is more than the capacitor voltage, the capacitor begins to charge again.

Vr
Vrms (t) = √ (1.51)
2 3
Where, Vr is the total capacitor discharge voltage. It is necessary to express , Vr in terms of
capacitance C and load current Idc . The total charge lost during non conducting period is
Idc*T/2 (Assumption T 1 + T 2 = T /2). As T 1 << T 2,T 2 = T /2

Idc
cVr = Idc × t/2 = (1.52)
2f
Idc
Vr = (1.53)
2fc
We know
Vr,rms
ripple f actor = (1.54)
Vdc
 21

Fig. 1.23 Zener diode symbol

Idc
Vr,rms = √ (1.55)
4 3fc
Idc RL
Vr,rms = √ (1.56)
4 3 f cRL
So
Vdc
Vr,rms = √ (1.57)
4 3 f cRL
So ripple factor γ is
1
γ= √ (1.58)
4 3 f cRL
Zener diode and its characterestics

A Zener diode is a highly doped semiconductor device specifically designed to function in

the reverse direction. The symbol of zener diode is shown in Fig.1.23.
Zener diode VI characterestics

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode The first quadrant in the graph represents the
forward characteristics of a Zener diode. From the graph, we understand that it is almost
identical to the forward characteristics of P-N junction diode.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener
voltage, a small reverse saturation current Io flows across the diode. This current is due to
thermally generated minority carriers. As the reverse voltage increases, at a certain value of
reverse voltage, the reverse current increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication
that the breakdown has occurred. We call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage,
and Vz denotes it. The VI characteristics are shown in Fig.1.24.
22 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

Fig. 1.24 VI Characterestics of zener diode

1.0.1 Regulators
The variation of output voltage w.r.t. the amount of load current drawn from the power supply
is known as voltage regulation and is expressed by the following relation. % Regulation=
VNL −VFL
(1.59)
VFL
where VNL is No-load voltage and VFL is the Full load voltage.

1.0.2 Zener voltage as a regulator:

As shown in Fig 1.24, the large change in current in zener diode results small change in zener
voltage. Therefore,zener diode can be used as an excellent regulator.
Case 1: Supply voltage is variable and load RL is kept constant at 10 kΩ. Let the supply
voltage is 11 volts. The desired zener voltage is 10 volts. The voltage drop across the resistor
100 Ω is
V1 =VS -VZ =11-10V=1V
1
The current IR across 100 Ω is 100×10 −3 =10mA.
10
The current IL across RL is 10×103 =1mA
So current entering in zener diode is
 23

Fig. 1.25 Zener regulator with supply variations

Fig. 1.26 Zener regulator voltage versus zener current

IZ = IR − IL = 9mA (1.60)
Let the supply voltage is varied to 12 volts. The desired zener voltage is 10 volts. The voltage
drop across the resistor 100 Ω is
2
V1 =VS -VZ =12-10V=2V The current IR across 100 Ω is 100 =20mA.
10
The current IL across RL is 10×103 =1mA
So current entering in zener diode is

IZ = IR − IL = 19mA (1.61)
Case 11: supply voltage is fixed and RL is variable. Suppose RL is 20 kΩ and the supply
1
voltage is fixed to 11 volts. V1 =VS -VZ =11-10V=1V The current IR across 100 Ω is 100 =10
mA.
10
The current IL across RL is 20×10 3 =0.5 mA
So current entering in zener diode is
IZ =IR -IL =9.5 mA
Suppose RL is 5 kΩ and the supply voltage is fixed to 11 volts. V1 =VS -VZ =11-10V=1V The
24 PN junction diode and Rectifiers

1
current IR across 100 Ω is 100×10 −3 =10mA.
10
The current IL across RL is 5×10 3 =2mA
So current entering in zener diode is
IZ =IR -IL =8 mA
As shown in Figure 1.26, the voltage in zener regulator is kept constant even though there is
variations in supply voltage or fluctuations in load current.