GREEN ENERGY SYSTEMS

(GES216B)

LECTURE NOTE 1
INTRODUCTION TO GREEN
ENERGY SYSTEMS
 MODULE 1 - Unit 1: FUNDAMENTALS
ON ENERGY CONVERSION

TOPICS
1. Introduction to energy—basic concepts of
energy
2. Forms of energy; renewable and non-
renewable energy sources
[Link] and the environment
[Link] applications of renewable energy
sources
1.1 Energy

• From the prehistoric times down through the various

industrial revolutions to the current digital information
age, humans have found ingenious ways to derive and
process energy from varied sources to meet their
needs.
• Every aspect of human life requires energy as a basic
resource to maintain and prolong survival and comfort.
• All human societies rely on one form of energy or the
other to drive their activities. For example, heating,
cooling, lighting, motor actions, etc., all involve
expenditure of energy to perform useful tasks.
 Energy - 1
• Generally, energy appears in some sources as stored
units, such as oil, coal, etc.; and in others as flowing
units, such as solar and wind, in the atmosphere.
These units can all be harnessed for beneficial
purposes.
• Energy conversion systems, comprised of various
components and supported by effective technologies,
are primarily employed to harness and process energy
from basic sources, and transform it into forms
suitable for desired consumption.
• It is of note that as long as human civilizations exist,
there will always be efforts geared towards
improvement of energy availability, reliability, and
consumption, although there are also attendant
climate, environmental, and health implications.
1.1.1 Definition of Energy

• From elementary physics, we learnt that “energy is the

ability to do work.” Used interchangeably with total
work done, it makes changes possible in states of
matter. Small or large energy corresponds to small or
large work.
• A related quantity, termed power, allows energy to be
appropriately defined when work is being expended.
• Energy, E, and power, P, are concisely related by the
following equations (where t is the time variable):
𝑑𝐸
P= (1)
𝑑𝑡

E= ‫𝑡𝑑𝑃 ׬‬ (2)
 1.1.2 Fundamental Laws of Energy
First Law
• The first basic law of energy states that energy can be
neither created nor destroyed, but can change forms.
This means that the total energy in any system is
unchanged, though the energy can take various forms
depending on the processes that take place within the
system.
• Not accounting for the lost or wasted energy, this law
implies that the energy output from a given system is
equal to the energy input minus the energy stored in the
system.
• This law is termed the law of conservation of energy or
the first law of thermodynamics. In a very simple and
informal language, it says “Only nothing can come out of
nothing” or “you cannot get something out of nothing”.
 Fundamental Laws of Energy-1
Second Law
• The other basic law is called the second law of
thermodynamics, and states that it is practically impossible
to have a process that is perfectly (i.e., 100%) efficient.
• This law has to do with available energy which can be
converted to useful work, since some form of energy
losses will always take place.
• Since the state of disorderliness (which is called “entropy”)
in a system contributes to losses in the system, then this
law also means that the change in entropy in any practical
process is always greater than zero.
1.1.3 Units of Energy

• Different measurement units can be used to describe

energy, because it exists in more than one form.
• Energy in the form of heat is measured in calories and
British thermal units (BTUs).
• Mechanical energy is measured in Joules, ergs, and
foot-pounds.
• Electrical energy is measured in watt hours, kilowatt
hours, etc.
• Nuclear energy is described using million electronVolts
(MeV).
 Units of Energy – Interpretation &
Relationship
• The following table describes these (and similar) units
and their relations to one another.
Table 1.1: Energy Units
Name Interpretation Relation to Other
Unit(s)
Joule (J) Energy caused (work done) by a force 1 J =1 N m = 1 W s
of 1 N exerted through a distance of
1m
Erg Energy caused (work done) by a force 1 erg = 10-7 J
of 1 dyne (10-5 N) exerted through a
distance of 1 cm
Foot- Work done by a force of 1 lb (0.4536 1 foot-pound = 1.3826 J
pound kg) acting through a distance of 1 ft
(0.3048 m or 12 inches)
Calorie Amount of heat required to raise the 1 cal = 4.1855 J;
(cal) temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C 1 Cal = 1000 cal = 1 kcal
 Units of Energy – Interpretation &
Relationship -1
Table 1.1: Energy Units (cont.)

Name Interpretation Relation to Other

Unit(s)
BTU Amount of heat required to raise 1 BTU = 1055 J;
the temperature of 1 lb of water 1 BTU = 10-15 quad;
by 1°F 1 BTU = 10-5 therm
Watt hour Amount of energy produced 1 Wh = 3600 J
(Wh) when 1 W (1.3410 x 10-3 hp) of
power flows for 1 h
(hp means horsepower)
ElectronVolt Amount of energy gained by an 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J
(eV) electron that moves under the
action of a potential difference
of 1 V
Tonne of oil Amount of energy released 1 toe = 41.868 x 109 J
equivalent when one metric ton (1000 kg)
(toe) of crude oil is burnt
1.2 Forms of Energy

• As said previously, energy exists mainly in either potential

or kinetic form.
• Chemical, gravitational, or nuclear energy represents
energy in potential form.
• Electrical, heat (thermal), light ( electromagnetic), or sound
(acoustic) energy represents energy in kinetic form.
• The following table gives short descriptions of some of the
available energy types.
 Forms of Energy-1
Table 1.2: Energy Forms

Form Description

Potential This is stored energy due to the position or inherent

structural (elastic) characteristic of an object. For instance,
gravitational energy is the potential energy stored due to
the location of an object in the gravitational field, while the
potential energy stored in a spring is due to the elastic
nature of the spring.
Kinetic This is the energy associated with an object in relative
motion to another object.

Chemical This is the available potential energy resulting from the

chemical arrangement of atoms of some substance or
matter. This energy can be released if the atoms are
subjected to the influence of external forces or excited in
an appropriate chemical reaction. The energy in fossil
fuels is chemical in nature.
 Forms of Energy-2
Table 1.2: Energy Forms (cont.)

Form Description
Electrochemical This is the potential energy stored in some substance due
to the combined effect of chemical and electrical energy.
The energy present in batteries or electric cells is
electrochemical in nature.
Heat This the energy that exists in a system due to temperature
difference. It can be derived from burning fossil fuels and
biomass material, through a solar thermal or geothermal
process, or from a nuclear reaction.
Electromagnetic This is the energy associated with electromagnetic waves.
It is radiated in form of transverse electric and magnetic
waves. This energy pertains to the whole electromagnetic
spectrum, and can appear in visible or invisible form, such
as the radiant waves (i.e., infrared, visible light, and
ultraviolet rays) from the Sun, light rays from electric lighting
bulbs, microwave from cooking ovens, synthesized radio
waves that carry communication information/data, etc.
 Forms of Energy-3
Table 1.2: Energy Forms (cont.)

Form Description
Sound This energy is associated with the vibration of air particles, leading
to various hearing tones. Many systems and devices (both sonic
and ultrasonic) have been made to exploit this type of energy for
inspection and measurement purposes.
Nuclear This energy is produced as a result of reactions involving
radioactive elements in nuclear fission and fusion. It is used in
nuclear power plants to generate intense heat for power
generation purposes.
Electrical This is the energy generated in form of electricity from primary
energy sources such as coal, oil, natural gas, etc., so it is termed
secondary energy. It is efficient and very versatile in applications,
and has become the most effective way to transport energy from
primary sources to various other forms for useful purposes. Owing
to the extreme significance of this energy, huge and complicated
networks have been built and dedicated to the purpose of
generating electricity all over the world. Most of the subsequent
modules will further look at this electricity generation further using
non-conventional methods.
1.3 Sources of Energy
• There are two major sources of energy in nature. They
are non-renewable (or conventional or depletable) and
renewable (or non-conventional or replenishable or
alternative or green) sources.
• Examples of non-renewable energy sources are fossil
fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, and uranium.
Because they are limited in supply, they are termed
depletable sources.
• Non-renewable sources are used for generation of
electricity, to produce thermal heat for heating/cooling,
and as fuels in various transportation sectors. They
also serve as raw materials for production of many
industrial products.
 Sources of Energy-1
• Renewable energy sources are unlimited in supply,
and their examples include hydro power, solar energy,
wind energy, biomass, geothermal energy, and ocean
(wave, tidal, and thermal) energy. They are
replenishable. Their major use is in electricity
generation and for producing heat for various
applications.
• Conversion systems, consisting of a number of
components and processing stages, are normally
employed to transform the energy sources into the
desired ends.
1.3.1 Non-renewable Energy
Conversion Systems
• The conversion system for electricity generation from
non-renewable sources (i.e., coal, oil, gas, and
uranium) involves transformation of the stored
chemical energy in these sources to heat energy and
then to mechanical energy and finally to electrical
energy.
• In a fossil fuel-driven power station, the fuel is burnt to
heat water to produce steam at a high temperature
and pressure. The steam then turns a turbine which is
connected to the shaft of a generator, thereby leading
to electricity production. (From Faraday’s law of
induction, the rotation of the generator’s coils in a
magnetic field leads to an induced emf.)
Non-renewable Energy Conversion
Systems
• So the generation of electricity from fossil fuels is a
multistage system involving chemical, heat,
mechanical, and electrical processes.
• From the 2010 report of International energy agency
(IEA), fossil fuels provide close to 67% of the primary
sources for the world’s electricity production in 2008,
with coal, natural gas, and oil giving 41%, 21%, and
5%, respectively. Nuclear sources give 13%, hydro
gives 16%, and the remaining 4% comes from
renewable (non-hydro) sources.
1.3.2 Renewable Energy Conversion
Systems
• The development of renewable energy systems has
been on the increase since the environmental
problems caused by fossil fuels got the attention of the
global community. The threat of imminent depletion of
fossil fuels has also contributed to this development.
• The share of renewable energy in the total world’s
energy consumption was approximately 19% in 2008:
wind/solar/biomass/geothermal power generation—
0.7%; biofuels—0.6%; biomass/solar/geothermal hot
water/heating—1.4%; hydropower—3.2%; traditional
biomass—13%.
 Renewable Energy Conversion
Systems-1
• Renewable energy (hydro + non-hydro renewable)
shared 26% of the total world’s electricity in 2009.
• According to the 2010 report of World Energy Council,
it was estimated that the share of non-hydro
renewable resources to world’s energy growth would
increase from 5% (1990–2010) to 18% (2010–2030),
while the share of fossil fuels was predicted to fall from
83% (1990–2010) to 64% (2010–2030).
• A basic description of a renewable energy system is
given next for each of solar, wind, hydro, geothermal,
ocean, and biomass energy resources. Some of these
will be treated in detail in subsequent modules.
[Link] Solar Energy Resource
• Solar energy is extremely important to the energy
needs of the world. All renewable sources are derived
from it. It is also environmentally friendly and has no
fuel costs.
• The solar energy quantity at a particular region is a
function of the weather condition, location of the
region, and time of day.
• The power per unit area provided by the sun is called
irradiance (in W/m2), while the energy provided per
unit area over a period of time is termed insolation (in
kWh/m2/day or kWh/m2/year).
• There are two types of solar energy resource: solar
photovoltaic energy and solar thermal energy.
 Solar Energy Resource-1
• Efficient collection and storage are issues associated
with solar energy.
• A solar photovoltaic system has a low efficiency and
requires large battery banks for energy storage.
Therefore, it is not yet fully developed to the extent
that it can be deployed for large-scale electricity
production.
• Solar thermal energy is most often used for drying,
and for space and water heating.
[Link] Wind Energy Resource

• Wind energy is derived from the moving air, and its

amount in a given region depends on the location of
the region, weather conditions, and time of day.
• Wind energy is environmentally friendly and has no
fuel costs.
• A wind turbine is used as a prime mover in a wind
power plant to drive the shaft of a generator. The
turbine converts the kinetic energy in the moving air
into rotational mechanical energy.
• Wind farms are built on land and offshore in order to
harness the power in the air to generate electricity.
 Wind Energy Resource-1
• Wind farms normally have quite a number of individual
turbines which are arranged in series to produce
electricity.
• The electrical power produced by a turbine depends
on the amount of air power reaching the blades of the
turbine.
[Link] Hydro Energy Resource

• The sun provides the hydro energy in a series of

stages captured by the water cycle.
• The hydro energy resource can be harnessed and
efficiently stored to produce electricity on a large
scale. It is also environmentally friendly, and requires
no fuel cost.
• In a hydro power plant, a number of turbines (mostly of
impulse or reaction types) are employed to drive the
shaft of a generator to produce electricity, taking
advantage of the water head and flow characteristics.
 Hydro Energy Resource-1
• Micro hydro power (MHP) systems are used to
generate small-scale electric power, which ranges
from 5 kW to 100 kW. If properly designed, these
systems are very reliable and economic.
• There are two approaches to hydro power systems:
run-of-river or reservoir water supplies.
• Run-of-river hydro systems are less expensive to build
since they take advantage of the natural water flow
and require no water storage for electricity generation.
The water is normally conveyed to the turbine through
a piping system or what is termed a penstock.
• Reservoir water supplies need a storage structure in
form of a dam.
[Link] Geothermal Energy Resource

• This resource varies significantly from place to place in

the world, depending on geography. Places on Earth
near tectonic plate boundaries or with high volcanic
activities experience this resource in rich amount.
• Geothermal energy is both employed for electricity
generation and heating purposes. In 2010, 10.7 GW of
electricity was produced from geothermal power plants
globally.
• Many nations, such as United States, Iceland,
Philippines, China, etc., have increased their interest
in geothermal energy utilization.
Geothermal Energy Resource-1
• Geothermal power plants occur in three forms: flash,
dry steam, and binary cycle.
• In the flash type, which is the most common, a
production well is used to pump up high-pressure
water which, through a flow of steam from its
vaporization, drives a turbine that generates electricity.
• The dry steam type uses dry steam from the
production well to directly drive the turbine. This is
common in regions where steam rises out of the
production well spontaneously.
Geothermal Energy Resource-2
• In the case of a binary cycle geothermal power plant, a
heat exchanger is used to further process the high
temperature fluid coming up from a production well.
This exchanger contains a liquid, such as butane or
pentane, that can boil and vaporize at a lower
temperature. For each unit of electrical energy, the
binary cycle power station is much more than any of
the other types.
 [Link] Ocean Energy Resource
• This resource also is environmentally friendly and
requires no fuel costs. The percentage of ocean
coverage in the Earth’s surface is over 70%, though,
unlike the freshwater hydro resource, the salinity of the
ocean water is a disadvantage.
• There are three promising ocean energy resources,
although they have not been exploited to an
appreciable degree in terms of electricity generation:
ocean wave energy, ocean tidal energy, and ocean
thermal energy.
• The potential in terms of electricity generation for each
of these ocean resources is huge, but there are
techno-economic challenges associated with their
exploitation.
 Ocean Energy Resource-1
• Ocean wave energy can be produced by the sufficient
interaction of wind with the surface of ocean water.
The wave height is a function of a number of factors,
such as the speed and duration of the wind.
• Wave power is not widely used to generate electricity
due to the high cost involved. More importantly, wave
power is adversely affected by severe storms.
• The energy generated due to the alternating rise and
fall of the ocean water can also be employed to
produce electricity. This rise and fall due to the
resultant gravitation pull of the Moon and Sun is called
the tide.
 Ocean Energy Resource-2
• Harnessing the power of the tide for electricity
generation is also not widely used owing to the
relatively high cost involved.
• Ocean thermal energy systems use heat engines to
generate electricity by taking advantage of the
differences in temperature that occur between ocean
surface layers and the water below the surface (at a
high depth). The heat engines are run based on small
differences in temperature.
• Exploiting ocean thermal energy is also uneconomical due
to overall high initial and running costs.
 [Link] Biomass Energy Resource

• Biomass can be employed to produce ethanol,

biodiesel, electricity, and for energy generation in
various industrial process plants.
• Biomass means the entire “plant and animal matter,
living or dead, the wastes from such organisms, and
the wastes of society that has been generated from
these organisms.” It refers to the whole mass of
materials obtainable from living organisms.
• Biomass is available all over the world, and can be
produced in abundant quantity for various applications.
1.4 Applications of Energy Sources
• The applications of energy are numerous, covering
virtually all facets of human life. Various industrial,
manufacturing, and commercial sectors have direct or
indirect use of energy sources. The primary sources
can serve as direct raw materials, or be processed for
further and more efficient utilization.
• Energy industry is a huge network that handles
production, processing, distribution, sale, and
consumption of energy, cutting across metal
extraction/processing, fuel mining and refining;
electricity generation/distribution; building and
construction; transportation; etc.
Fossil Fuels Versus Renewable Sources
1) In terms of sustainability, fossil fuels are finite and not
renewable.
2) Fossil fuels are not clean. This means that they
create carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere, which adds to global warming.
3) Fossil fuels can be reliably and conveniently stored.
There is an ongoing challenge with alternative energy
storage.
4) At present, fossil fuels still have a greater share in
terms of energy supply, demand, and consumptions,
but this will gradually change as more and more
renewables are used.
5) Fossil fuels have high energy density and much more
versatile than renewable sources.
1.5 Energy and the Environment
• Production, processing, and utilization of energy have
become an integral part of human existence. These
activities also impact the environment adversely.
• For instance, the use of transportation fuels gradually
changes the climate through the emission of
greenhouse (GHG) gases and other emissions.
• Although renewable resources are attractive and
promising, the use of conventional methods of energy
supply based on fossil and nuclear fuels can not be
avoided.
• The reasons for continued use of fossil fuel are listed
as follows:
 Energy and the Environment-1
1) The techno-economics of fossil and nuclear fuels are
well-established.
2) The energy density of the fossil and nuclear fuels is
high, and flexible in various forms of energy
applications.
3) The resources are known to a reliable extent, at least
for some years to come.
4) The technologies are well developed.
Bibliography for Module I (Introduction
to Green Energy Systems)
1. Anne M., "Renewable Energy: Sources and Methods," Infobase Publishing,
2010, ISBN 978-1-4381-2748-4.
2. Christian N., "Energy Resources, technologies and the environment," The
Institution of Engineering and Technology, 2010, ISBN 978-1-84919-153-1.
3. Frank R. S., "Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy," Taylor &
Francis, 2015, ISBN-13 978-1-4822-4947-7.
4. Mandelli S., Barbieri J., Mereu R., Colombo E., "Off-grid Systems for Rural
Electrification in Developing Countries: Definitions, Classification and a
Comprehensive Literature Review," Renewable Sustainable Energy Review,
vol. 58, pp. 1621–1646 2016.
5. Mohammad O. A., "Applied Energy: An Introduction," Taylor & Francis, 2013,
ISBN-13 978-1-4665-7608-7.
6. Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century, 2010 Global Status
Report on Renewable Sources.
7. Robert E., "Renewable Energy: A First Course," Taylor & Francis, 2013,
ISBN 13 978-1-4665-9944-4.
8. World Energy Council (WEC), 2010 Survey of Energy Resources, London,
United Kingdom.
GREEN ENERGY SYSTEMS
(GES216B)

COMPILED BY
Prof. OLAWALE POPOOLA
& DR. AYOKUNLE
AWELEWA
TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF
TECHNOLOGY