SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS
Instrument Use
Accelerometer Measures acceleration
Altimeter Measures altitude (height)
Ammeter Measures electric charges
Anemometer Measures wind speed
Barometer Measures atmospheric pressure
Bolometer Measures electromagnetic radiation
Calipers Measures the distance between two opposite sides of an object
Calorimeter Measures the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as
heat capacity
Cardiograph Measures heart rate
Cryometer Measures freezing temperature
Dynamometer Measures the power output of an engine
Electrometer Measures electric charges
Galvanometer Measures electric current
Hydrometer Measures density of liquids
Hygrometer Measures moisture content (Humidity) in the atmosphere
Hypsometer Measures height (altitude)
Lactometer Measures milk purity
Magnetometer Measures magnetic property of a substance
Nephelometer Measures suspended particulates in a liquid or gas colloid
Ohmmeter Measures resistance in different applications of electrical testing
Ondometer Measures the frequency of electromagnetic waves
Photometer Measures the intensity of light
Pyknometer Measures density of substance
Pyrometer Measures high temperature
Radar Determines the range, angle, or velocity of objects
Refractometer Measures refractive index
Sextant Measures the angle between any two visible objects
Sphygmomanometer Measures blood pressure
Stethoscope Used to listen heart beats
Telemeter Measures distances to remote objects
Thermometer Measures temperature
Tonometer Measure the internal pressure of the eye
Venturimeter Measures the rate of a flow of a fluid flowing through a pipe
Voltmeter Measures electrical potential difference between two points in an electric
circuit
MAJOR SCIENTIFIC FIELDS AND THEIR FOUNDERS
Subject Founder/Father Description (if any)
Biogeography Alfred Russel Wallace Wallace worked on the impact of human
activity on the natural world
Biology Aristotle
Botany Theophrastus
Evolution Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species (1859)
Genetics Gregor Mendel Studied the inheritance of traits in pea plants
(forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance)
Microbiology Antonie van The first to microscopically observe micro-
Leeuwenhoek organisms in water and the first to see
bacteria
Molecular biology Linus Pauling
Molecular biophysics Gopalasamudram Founded the molecular biophysics unit (1970)
Narayana Iyer
Ramachandran
Paleontology Leonardo da Vinci
Parasitology Francesco Redi The founder of experimental biology. He was
the first person who challenged the theory of
spontaneous generation by demonstrating
that maggots come from eggs of flies
Protozoology Antonie van First to produce precise, correct descriptions
Leeuwenhoek of protozoa.
Atomic theory (early) Democritus Founder of atomism in cosmology
Atomic theory Father Roger Boscovich & First coherent description of atomic theory
(modern)
John Dalton First scientific description of the atom as a
building block for more complex structures.
Chemistry (early) Jabir First introduced the experimental method to
Islamic alchemy
Antoine Lavoisier Elements of Chemistry (1787)
Jöns Berzelius Development of chemical nomenclature
Chemistry (modern)
(1800s)
John Dalton Revival of atomic theory (1803)
Nuclear chemistry Otto Hahn Applied Radiochemistry (1936)
Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev He arranged the sixty-six elements known at
the time in order of atomic weight by periodic
intervals (1869)
Physical chemistry Mikhail Lomonosov The first person to read lectures in physical
chemistry and coin the term in 1752
Geodesy Eratosthenes
(mathematical
geography)
Plate tectonics Alfred Wegener
Speleology Édouard-Alfred Martel
Cognitive therapy Aaron T. Beck
Electrophysiology Emil du Bois-Reymond
Gynaecology J. Marion Sims
Histology Marcello Malpighi
Medicine Charaka Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the
Ayurveda system of medicine
Psychology Wilhelm Wundt Founded the first laboratory for psychological
(experimental) research
Plastic surgery Sushruta & Wrote the Sushruta Samhita
Harold Gillies
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud
Surgery (early) Sushruta Wrote the Sushruta Samhita
Enrico Fermi
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Atomic bomb
Leslie Groves
Edward Teller
Classical mechanics Isaac Newton
William Gilbert & Wrote ‘De Magnete’ (1600)
Electricity
Michael Faraday Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)
Modern astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus Developed the first heliocentric model in
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)
Nuclear physics Ernest Rutherford
Nuclear science Marie Curie & Pierre Curie
Optics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)
Quantum mechanics Max Planck
Relativity Albert Einstein
Thermodynamics Sadi Carnot
Brahmagupta
Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi
Algebra
(Algorismi)
Diophantus
Isaac Newton &
Calculus
Gottfried Leibniz
George Boole &
Computer science
Alan Turing
Geometry Euclid
Number theory Pythagoras
Trigonometry Aryabhata & Hipparchus
Fuzzy logic Lotfi Asker Zadeh
Anthropology Herodotus
Geography Eratosthenes
Demography Ibn Khaldun
History Herodotus He also coined the term 'History'
Alberico Gentili
International law Francisco de Vitoria
Hugo Grotius
Linguistics (early) Panini
Ibn Khaldun
Sociology
Auguste Comte (also Father of modern sociology
coined the term)
Accounting and Luca Pacioli
Bookkeeping
Economics (early) Chanakya / Kautilya
Mathematical Daniel Bernoulli
economics
Microcredit Muhammad Yunus Founded Grameen Bank
VITAMIN DIFICIENCY DISEASE
Vitamin Chemical Name/s Deficiency Disease Food Sources
Name
Vitamin K Phylloquinone, Bleeding diathesis Leafy green vegetables e.g.
Menaquinones spinach, egg yolks, liver
Vitamin E Tocopherols, Sterility in males and Fruits and vegetables, nuts
Tocotrienols abortions in females, and seeds
mild hemolytic anemia
in newborn infants
Vitamin D Cholecalciferol (D3), Rickets and Fish, eggs, liver, mushrooms
Ergocalciferol (D2) osteomalacia
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Scurvy Fruits and vegetables
Vitamin B9 Folic acid, Folinic acid Megaloblastic anemia Leafy vegetables, pasta,
and deficiency during bread, cereal, liver
pregnancy is
associated with birth
defects, such as neural
tube defects
Vitamin B7 Biotin Dermatitis, enteritis Raw egg yolk, liver, peanuts,
leafy green vegetables
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine, Anemia peripheral Meat, vegetables, tree nuts,
Pyridoxamine, neuropathy bananas
Pyridoxal
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid Paresthesia Meat, broccoli, avocados
Vitamin B3 Niacin, Niacinamide Pellagra Meat, fish, eggs, many
vegetables,mushrooms, tree
nuts
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Ariboflavinosis, Dairy products, bananas,
glossitis, angular popcorn, green beans,
stomatitis asparagus
Vitamin B12 Cyanocobalamin, Megaloblastic anemia Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, milk
Hydroxocobalamin,
Methylcobalamin
Vitamin B1 Thiamine Beriberi, Wernicke- Pork, oatmeal, brown rice,
Korsakoff syndrome vegetables, potatoes, liver,
eggs
Vitamin A Retinol Night blindness, Orange, ripe yellow fruits,
hyperkeratosis, and leafy vegetables, carrots,
keratomalacia pumpkin, squash, spinach,
fish, soya milk, milk
DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA
Disease Name Bacteria Pathogen Affected Organs Transmission
Through
Anthrax Bacillus Anthracis Skin & Lung Infected environment
e.g. infected animals
Chlamydial Chlamydia trachomatis Cervix, Eye, Sexual
urethritis Urethra
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Intestine Food & water
Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheria Nose, throat Infected person
Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoeae Urinary tract Sexual
Leprosy (or Mycobacterium leprae and Skin, bone, nerves Contact
Hansen's disease Mycobacterium
(HD)) lepromatosis
Plague Yersinia pestis Lymph Infected fleas
Pneumonia Bacterial pneumonia (also Lung Environment
from virus)
Pertussis (also Bordetella pertussis Lung Infected environment
whooping cough)
Salmonellosis Salmonella Intestine Food
Syphilis Treponema pallidum Skin, Sexual
Cardiovascular
organs
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Muscle (spasms) Infected environment
Tuberculosis (TB) Mycobacterium tuberculosis Lung Infected air
Typhus Rickettsia bacteria Skin Bugs or by other
means of contact
DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUS
Disease Name Virus Affected Organs Transmission
Through
Adenovirus Adenovirus (DNA) Lungs, Eyes Contact
Infections
AIDS Human immunodeficiency T-lymphocytes Sexual or by other
virus (HIV) fluid contact
Arbovirus RNA viruses Brain Mosquito, tick or
encephalitis another arthropod
Chicken pox Varicella zoster virus Skin, Nervous Contact
(Varicella) (VZV) System
Cytomegalovirus Cytomegalovirus (CMV) Blood, Lungs Contact
Disease
Dengue Fever (Dengue virus) RNA Blood, Muscles Mosquito
Ebola Ebola viruses whole body bodily fluids
German Measles (Rubella virus) RNA Skin Contact
(Rubella)
Hepatitis A (Hepatovirus A) RNA Liver Contaminated Food,
Water
Hepatitis B (Hepatitis B virus (HBV)) Liver Contact with body
DNA Fluids
Herpes Simplex (Herpes simplex Skin, Pharynx, Contact
virus(HSV)) DNA Genital organs
Influenza (Influenza virus) RNA Respiratory Tract Droplets
Measles (Rubeola) (Measles virus (MeV)) Respiratory Tract, Contact
RNA Skin
Mumps (Epidemic (Mumps virus) RNA Salivary Glands, Contact
Parotitis) Blood
Polio (Poliomyelitis) (Poliovirus) RNA Intestine, Brain, Food, Water, Contact
Spinal Cord
Rabies (Lyssaviruses, Rabies Brain, Spinal cord Contact with body
virus) RNA Fluids
Smallpox (Variola) (Variola major and Variola Skin, Blood Contact, Droplets
minor) DNA
Yellow Fever (Yellow fever virus) RNA Liver, Blood Mosquito (Aedes
Aegypti)
DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGUS
Disease Name Causing Fungi Organs Affected
Athlete's foot (Tinea Pedis) Fungi Foot, skin
Ringworm Fungi Skin
Fungal Meningitis Fungi Blood, immune system
Psoriasis Fungi Skin
Onychomycosis Fungi Nail