SECTION 2.
MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL
1. DATA MANAGEMENT
EMENT
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this section, the students are expected to:
● organize and present data in forms that are both meaningful and useful for decision
makers;
● use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data;
● use the methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a variable
under certain conditions; and
● advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions.
Overview of Data Management
Data management is the practice of collecting, keeping, and using data securely, efficiently,
and cost-effectively. The goal of data management is to help people, organizations, and connected
things optimize the use of data within the bounds of policy and regulation so that they can make
decisions and take actions that maximize the benefit to the organization. Also, data management
explores the tools and techniques of handling data for research purposes. Data are individual pieces
of factual information recorded and used for the purpose of analysis. It is the raw information from
which statistics are created. Statistics are the results of data analysis, its interpretation and
presentation. In other words, some computation has taken place that provides some understanding
of what the data means.
Introduction to Statistics
Statistics has a great influence in almost all fields of human endeavor. It may have different
meanings, but what matters is how we understand statistics so that we can make proper judgments
when a person or company presents us with an argument supported by data. Thus, there is a need
for statistical data in every walk of life.
Whenever we watch television, listen to a radio, or read newspapers, magazines, or books, we
encounter statistics. We can find statistics in articles on business, politics, science and technology,
education, sports, and many other subjects. To comprehend all the information presented, we must
possess a considerable level of understanding of statistics.
Statistics plays a vital role in all intricacies of life. It aids in making inferences and decisions,
helps in summarizing or describing data, and assists in forecasting or predicting future outcomes,
and even in comparing or establishing certain relationships. In education, statistics gives
information about a school’s population change. In business and economics including government,
statistics helps in the control and maintenance of quality products and assists a financial analyst in
making investment decisions (human resource allocation).
Looking at its etymology, the word “statistics” was derived from the Latin word “status” or
from the Italian word “statista”, which means “political state” or “government”. It is used to
describe collection, reliability, organization, representation, analysis, and interpretation of data and
not just a collection of numerical results. Simply put, Statistics is a branch of mathematics that
deals with the collection, tabulation or representation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical or
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quantitative data, and drawing of conclusions about a population from knowledge of the properties
of a sample.
Division of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics is a statistical procedure concerned with the description of the
characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places or things which are based on easily
verifiable facts. It is used in organization, presentation, and summary of data either using charts
and graphs, or using a numerical summary like frequencies, percents, measures of central tendency
like mean, median and mode, measures of dispersion such as range, variance and standard
deviation, and measures of position such as percentile, decile and quartile.
Descriptive statistics answers questions like:
1. How many students are interested to take Statistics online?
2. What is the year level of the students?
Also, its purposes or objectives can be exemplified in the following:
1. Find shooting average for the past 10 games.
2. Determine the length of songs, in seconds in a playlist.
Inferential Statistics, on the other hand, involves generalizing from a sample to the population,
estimating unknown population parameters, drawing conclusions, and making decisions.
Inferential statistics is used in hypothesis testing. Some commonly used inferential statistics are t-
test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and regression analysis.
Inferential statistics answers questions like:
1. Is there a significant difference in the academic performance of the students in Statistics
when they are grouped according to the highest educational attainment of parents?
2. Is there a significant relationship between financial literacy and choice of investment?
Moreover, its purposes or objectives can be shown in the following examples:
1. Estimate a politician’s chance of winning in the upcoming senatorial election.
2. Determine the factors that influence college graduates’ success in licensure examinations.
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-=TARGET PRACTICE 1.0=-
Write DS if each question/purpose obtained from different disciplines can be answered by
descriptive statistics and IS if it is by inferential statistics. Write your answer in the first column
adjacent to the item number.
Questions
DS 1. Pageantry: What is the profile of the title holder Filipino beauty queens in
terms of their highest educational attainment?
DS 2. Health: How many patients underwent major operations in a hospital in the
month of May 2020?
DS 3. Economics: What is the average price of the vegetables sold in the market?
IS 4. Leisure: Is stress level related to degree of anxiety?
IS 5. Education: Does age differentiate the academic performance of students?
Purposes/Objectives
DS 6. Population: Determine the average life expectancy at birth in the
Philippines for 2020.
IS 7. Health: Determine if taking slimming pills helps in losing weight.
DS 8. Economics: Describe the total amount of estimated losses from typhoon
Odette.
9. Education: Determine if students’ mathematics performance is affected by
IS
the income of their parents.
DS 10. Agriculture: Find the average wages of farm workers in a barangay.
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LESSON 1. DATA
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:
● identify the types of data;
● describe each type of data;
● classify information according to their level of measurement;
● identify the most commonly used methods of data collection;
● determine the different ways of deriving a sample; and
● identify the different methods of presenting data.
To gain information, a statistician collects data for certain variables which are used to describe
an event. Data are the elements of a set of observations, values, elements or objects under
consideration.
Different Ways of Classifying Data
A. According to Nature
1. Quantitative data can be measured and not simply observed. They can be numerically
represented and calculations can be performed on them.
Examples: age, height, weight, amount
2. Qualitative data represent some characteristics or attributes. They depict descriptions that
may be observed but cannot be computed or calculated.
Example: Problems encountered in your studies
B. According to Source or Publication
1. Primary Data are data gathered first-hand by a researcher who makes a report on them.
Example: Data gathered from a survey
2. Secondary Data are those data that have been gathered by another for a specific purpose
but are analyzed by others for some other purpose.
Example: Information from newspapers or journals
C. According to Arrangement
1. Ungrouped data are the data without specific order or arrangement. They are referred to as
raw data.
2. Grouped data have been grouped into categories. Histograms, frequency tables, and pie
charts can be used to show this type of data.
D. Quantitative Data can be further classified according to Countability
1. Discrete data are those obtained from counting process where data are whole numbers.
Examples: household size, number of bottles of coke produced
2. Continuous data are those obtained through the measuring process where data are values
that may be decimals or fractions.
Examples: inflation rate, weight in kilograms
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Lesson 1.1 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
When we collect data, we usually classify the information obtained according to one of the four
levels of measurement:
1. Nominal. The data at this level of measurement consist of names only, or qualities with no
implied criteria by which the data can be identified as greater than or less than other data items.
Examples:
Sex (male and female)
Ethnic affiliation (Gaddang, Ybanag, Ilocano, Tagalog)
Political Party (Liberal Party, Nacionalista Party, PDP-Laban, etc.)
2. Ordinal. The data at the ordinal level may be arranged in some order, but the actual differences
between the data values are neither determined nor meaningless. In other words, an ordinal
scale provides information about where group members fall relative to each other. It does not,
however, indicate the precise extent by which the group members differ.
Examples:
Performance of the faculty described as poor, satisfactory, very satisfactory, and excellent.
Highest educational attainment such as elementary graduate, high school graduate, college
graduate.
3. Interval. This level of measurement is like the ordinal level, but has an additional property. The
meaningful differences between the data values can be determined. Also, data at an interval
level have no absolute or fixed “zero” point. A zero value does not mean the absence of the
characteristic.
Examples:
Temperature of water
Grades in the first quarter
4. Ratio. This level is similar to the interval level, but it includes an inherent zero as a starting
point for all measurements.
Examples:
Length of woods
Weight of persons
Number of objects
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-=TARGET PRACTICE 1.1=-
Categorize these measurements associated with student life according to level: nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio. Write your answer on the space provide opposite the item.
1. Class standing: freshman, sophomore, junior, senior Ordinal
2. Number of children in a family Ratio
3. Grade of a student in Math Interval
4. Subject evaluation scale: poor, acceptable, good Ordinal
5. Zip code Nominal
6. US shoe size: 6, 6 ½, 7, 7 ½, 8, 8 ½, … Interval
7. Blood type Nominal
8. Years of service in a company Ratio
9. Civil status Nominal
10. Socio-economic standing: lower, middle, upper class Ordinal
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Lesson 1.2 METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
There are five (5) most commonly used methods of data collection in educational and
psychological researches which are as follows: 1) interview method; 2) questionnaire method; 3)
observation method; 4) registration method; 5) experiment method; and 6) documentary or records
analysis. These methods are presented in Table 1.1 with their characteristics, advantages, and
disadvantages.
Table 1.1 Methods of Data Collection
Methods Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
1. Interview It is a person-to-person It provides It is time-
method exchange between the consistent and more consuming,
interviewer and the precise information expensive, and has
interviewee. This method can since clarification limited field
be a direct or indirect may be given by the coverage.
interview. It is a direct interviewee. The
interview if it is personal and questions may be
indirect if it is conducted repeated or modified
through telephone or using to suit each
technology. This method is interviewee’s level
usually used in qualitative of understanding.
research.
2. Questionnaire The responses are written and It saves time and There is a high level
method the research participants are money. Also, a large of probability of
given more time to answer number of samples having no response,
the prepared questions. A can be reached in a especially if the
questionnaire is a list of shorter span of time. questionnaires are
questions that are intended to Additionally, the mailed. Likewise,
elicit answers to the problems informers may feel a the questions which
of a study. It can be greater sense of are not easily
administered personally by freedom to express understood will
printed forms or can be their views and probably not be
mailed through a google opinions because answered.
form. The different types of their anonymity is
the questionnaire are Likert maintained.
scale, open-ended, etc.
3. Observation The investigator observes the Data can be collected The information
method behavior of persons or at the time they may be exposed to
organizations and their occur. The observer subjective
outcomes. Also, it can be does not have to ask judgments.
done by reviewing recorded people about their
videos. behavior and reports
from others.
4. Registration Gathering information from The most reliable The data are limited
method the respondents is enforced information is kept to what is listed in
by certain laws, policies, systematized and the documents.
rules, regulations, decrees, or made available to all
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Methods Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
standard practices. Examples because of the
are registration of births, requirement of the
deaths, motor vehicles, law.
marriages and licenses.
5. Experiment It is used when the objective It can go beyond There are a lot of
method is to determine the cause- plain description. threats to internal
and-effect relationship of and external
certain phenomena under validity.
controlled conditions.
6. Documentary It relies on the compilation Using existing Information is
or records and analysis of existing information is limited to what
analysis organizational records, typically cheap and already exists.
documents and information. often free.
This information is often
collected for internal
management uses.
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-=TARGET PRACTICE 1.2=-
Identify the best method of collecting data applicable to each objective attained from the different
disciplines. Write your answer on the second column aligned to the item number and justify why
it is the best method for you on the third column.
Objective Best Method Justification
1. Health: To determine the effects of trainings and
Expiremental
physical workout on the Body Mass Index (BMI)
of the dancers.
2. Business: To determine the customers’
satisfaction on the service of a restaurant. Questionnaire
3. Psychology: To determine the behavior of a one- Observation
year-old baby.
4. History: To identify the modes of transportation
Documentary
in the Philippines during the Spanish Era.
5. Education: To know the teachers’ opinion on the
K-to-12 Program of the Basic Education Interview
Curriculum.
6. Economics: To determine the average monthly documentary
tourist arrivals in a beach resort. Record analysis
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Lesson 1.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
It is not necessary for the researcher to examine every member of the population to get the data
or information about the population. The cost and time constraints will prohibit one from
undertaking a study of the entire population. At any rate, all that a researcher needs to do is to draw
sample units. This process is called sampling.
The term sampling refers to the process which involves selecting a part of the population,
making observations on this representative group, and then generalizing the findings to the bigger
population. In addition, sampling refers to the strategies which enable one to pick a subgroup from
a larger group and then use this subgroup as a basis in making judgments about the larger group.
Sampling techniques or strategies refer to the different ways of deriving a sample. There are
two kinds of sampling techniques:
1. Probability Sampling. Probability sampling is a technique where all elements in the population
have a chance of being selected. The representative samples of the population are selected using
this technique. The findings of research using probability sampling can be used to infer the
characteristics of the population. Actually, the findings are more valid when probability
sampling is used.
The different sampling strategies under probability sampling are the following:
a. Random Sampling
Random sampling is a technique in which each element in the population has an equal
chance of being selected. This is done by using a lottery sampling or table of random numbers.
To illustrate this, number each subject in the population. Afterwards, place each number in a
bowl, and select as many card numbers as needed. Then, the subjects whose numbers are
selected will constitute the sample.
The next figure illustrates random sampling.
Source: [Link]
illustration-example-diagram-unbiased-choosing-people-sample-crowd-population-
image173101304
b. Systematic Sampling
This is done by numbering each subject of the population and then selecting every kth
number. For example, there are 5000 families in a city, so only 50 families are needed as sample
for an experiment. Since 5000 ÷ 50 = 100, then k = 100. This means that every 100th subject
will be selected. However, the first subject will be selected at random from subjects 1 to 100.
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Suppose the subject 88 is selected, then the sample will consist of subjects whose numbers are
88, 188, 288, and so on until 50 families will be obtained.
The next figure illustrates a systematic sampling with k is 3.
Source: [Link]
c. Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a sampling strategy in which the random sample represents specific
sub-groups or strata. Accordingly, application of stratified sampling strategy includes dividing
population into different subgroups (strata) and selecting subjects at random from each stratum
in a proportionate manner. Strata are designed so that members in each stratum are more
homogenous, that is, more similar to each other. The results are then grouped together to form
the sample. This technique is particularly useful in populations that can be stratified into
groups, for example, by age, gender, race, religion, or geography.
The next figure presents a stratified sampling.
Source: [Link]
For instance, suppose a research group is conducting a survey on the performance of second
year BSE students in their Statistics subject in a certain college. Instead of collecting the
performance of 1200 students, random samples of 120 can be selected for research. These 120
students can be divided into strata according to major of the students and each stratum will
have distinct members and number of members as shown in the table.
BSE Students Majors Population Sample Size
300
Filipino Major 300 𝑥120 = 30
1200
320
English Major 320 𝑥120 = 32
1200
150
Mathematics Major 150 𝑥120 = 15
1200
11
190
Science Major 190 𝑥120 = 19
1200
240
Social Science Major 240 𝑥120 = 24
1200
Total 1200 120
d. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling occurs when you select the members of your sample in clusters rather
than use separate individuals. It is a sampling strategy in which groups, not individuals, are
randomly selected. Thus, any intact group of similar characteristics is a cluster. Additionally,
this is sometimes referred to as area sampling because it is frequently applied in a geographical
basis. For instance, an organization intends to conduct a survey on the performance of
smartphones across a certain country. They can divide the entire country’s population into cities
(clusters) and randomly select cities to form a sample.
The next figure illustrates a cluster sampling.
Source: [Link]
e. Multi-Stage Sampling
This technique uses several stages or phases in getting the sample from the general
population. However, the selection of the sample is still done at random. Moreover, multi-stage
sampling is useful in conducting nationwide surveys or any survey involving a large universe.
For instance, a random group of one class is selected in the Philippines provinces. Then, within
these groups, a random sample of smaller sub-groups is selected, for example, cities or districts;
this continues until you reach the smallest level of sub-groups you need, for example, towns.
Afterwards, a sample of these smallest sub-groups can be randomly selected to form the
population for your study.
The figure below presents a multi-stage sampling.
Source: [Link]
2. Non-probability Sampling. Non-probability sampling is a strategy where not all elements in the
population frame have an equal chance of being selected. Certain parts in the overall group are
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deliberately not included in the selection of the representative subgroup. This strategy is also
called non-random or judgment sampling because it makes use of judgment in the selection of
items to put into the subgroup.
Under non-probability sampling, the following strategies are considered:
a. Purposive or Deliberate Sampling
This type of sampling strategy is based on certain criteria laid down by the researcher.
Thus, the people who satisfy the criteria are interviewed. For instance, a researcher might want
to find out the reactions of the banking community on a particular Central Bank Circular.
Instead of interviewing the executives of all banks, the researcher can purposely choose to
interview the key executives of the five (5) biggest banks in the country. To determine the
hobbies or leisure activities of persons with disabilities, a researcher may interview physically
impaired persons in a community.
The next figure shows a purposive or deliberate sampling.
Source: [Link]
a-group-vector-28835090
b. Quota Sampling
In quota sampling, you identify a set of important characteristics of a population and then
select your desired samples in a non-random way. It is assumed that the samples will match the
population with regard to the chosen set of characteristics.
For instance, if you are required in a research class to determine the most favored soft
drinks from a population of televiewers, you should interview televiewers who drink soft
drinks. You continue this process until you arrive at your quota.
The figure below illustrates a quota sampling.
Source: [Link]
c. Convenience or Accidental Sampling
This sampling strategy is based on the convenience of the researcher. For instance, if you
want to know the opinions of Filipinos about national reconciliation in the Philippines through
13
mobile phone interviews, you will have the chance to interview only those who have
telephones, which somehow manifests bias against those who have no telephones. If you want
to conduct a survey about the most favored presidential candidate, you may request your
classmates to become the respondents, they being the most accessible for you.
The next figure presents a convenience or accidental sampling.
Source: [Link]
sampling-png/hchFBq9A
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-=TARGET PRACTICE 1.3=-
Identify what sampling technique is exemplified in each statement taken from the different
disciplines. Write your answer in the second column adjacent to the item number.
1. Business: Every 12th customer entering a shopping mall is asked
Systematic sampling
to select his or her favorite store.
2. Education: In a university, all teachers from three buildings are
interviewed to determine whether they think students have higher Cluster sampling
grades now than in previous years.
3. Agriculture: Farm workers are selected using random numbers in
Random sampling
order to determine their wages.
4. Education: A teacher writes the name of each student in a card, Random sampling
shuffles the cards, and then draws five names.
5. Health: A head nurse selects 10 patients from each ward of a
hospital. Stratified sampling
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Lesson 1.4 METHODS OF PRESENTING DATA
The collected data must be organized in order to show significant characteristics. They can be
presented in three (3) forms:
Textual, where the data are presented in a paragraph form.
Graphical, where the data are presented in a visual form.
Tabular, where the data are presented in rows and columns.
1. Textual Form. In this form, results are explained in words in a paragraph format. This includes
enumerating the important characteristics, emphasizing the most significant features, and
highlighting the most striking attributes of the set of data.
Example:
In the College of Education, out of 186 freshmen, 89 or 47.85% are male while 97 or
52.15% are female.
2. Graphical Form. In this form, the data are presented in a visual form. The numerical data
provided in a frequency distribution or contingency table can be made more interesting and
easier to understand when depicted in a graphical form. A graph is a pictorial presentation of a
given set of data. It should have good appearance, and should be accurate, clear and simple.
There are several types of graphs and the following types of graphs are the most commonly
used.
Types of Graphs:
1. Scatter Graph – It is a graph made up of plotted points used to present values or
measurements that are thought to be related. This graph is used when the data are at an
interval or ratio scale.
Example: What is the trend in this scatter plot?
The scatter plot shows a downtrend. This is an example of a strong or high negative
correlation. It is negative because as the number of kilometers increases, the weight
decreases. Also, it is a strong correlation because the data points are closely grouped around
an almost straight line.
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2. Line Graph – It is a graphical presentation of data using connected points, especially useful
in showing trends over a period of time. This graph is used when the data are at an interval
or ratio scale.
Example: To monitor the health of her potato plants, Ms. Fiona recorded the number of
potatoes that grow in her garden each year. In which year did the largest number of potatoes
grow in Ms. Fiona's garden?
Source:[Link]
g_line_graph.htm
The graph shows an inconsistent trend in potato production of Ms. Fiona. As shown in
the graph, the largest number of potatoes grew in the year 20111, while the lowest number
was recorded in the 2010, 2012 and 2016.
3. Circle Graph – It is also known as a pie chart. This is used to represent the parts that make
up a whole. Pie charts are most effective when illustrating budget allocations of a family
or an agency, or in dealing with qualitative variables. This graph is used when the
measurements are at nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio scale. However, it is not practical
to use a pie chart when there are more than five possible values for a variable.
Example: Which foreign language is the most popular?
Source: [Link]
escuela-secundaria-grado-6-en-espa%C3%B1ol/section/8.13/related/lesson/interpretation-of-
circle-graphs-
Based on the graph, Spanish is the most popular foreign language studied since Spanish
has the largest percent value (55%), while German is the least popular (5%).
17
4. Bar or Column Graph – It is like a circle graph and only applicable to grouped data. This
consists of bars or heavy lines of equal widths, either vertical or horizontal. This graph is
used when the data are considered nominal and ordinal.
Example: Avie is a member of the Young Entrepreneurs, and she operates an ice cream
parlor during summer vacation. She asked people to name their favorite ice cream flavor.
The results of her survey are displayed in the following bar graph.
Source: [Link]
As shown in the graph, the majority of the people named bubble gum as their favorite
ice cream flavor followed by cotton candy, hoof prints, chocolate, and vanilla.
3. Tabular Form. The data are presented in a systematic and orderly manner in rows and columns
to catch one’s attention as it may facilitate the comprehension and analysis of the data
presented. The frequency distribution table (FDT) is a statistical table showing the frequency
or number of observations contained in each of the defined classes or categories. Each category
in the table is placed in a row or column and the data are assigned in suitable cells.
Parts of a Statistical Table
1. Table Heading includes the table number and title of the table.
2. Body refers to the main part of the table that contains the information of figures.
3. Stubs or classes refer to the classifications or categories describing the data and are usually
found at the leftmost side of the table.
4. Box head is located at the top of the body.
Example 1:
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Example 2: Describe the table in textual and graphical form.
Textual:
As shown in the table, out of 186 respondents, 97 or 52.15% are female and 89 or 47.85 %
are male.
Graphical: Circle Graph
Graphical: Bar Graph
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-=TARGET PRACTICE 1.4=-
Determine whether the statement is true or false. Write your answer in the second column
adjacent to the item number.
1. The data collected over a period of time can be graphed using a line
TRUE
graph.
2. In a tabular form, data are presented in a systematic and orderly
TRUE
manner in rows and columns.
3. Bar graphs can be drawn using vertical or horizontal lines. TRUE
4. In textual form, results are described in a paragraph. TRUE
5. The data collected must be organized to show insignificant
characteristics. FALSE
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