CE 62 – HYDRAULICS

MODULE

FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

Introduction
Fluid flow in circular and noncircular pipes is commonly encountered in practice. The hot
and cold water that we use in our homes is pumped through pipes. Oil and natural gas are
transported hundreds of miles by large pipelines. Blood is carried throughout our bodies by
arteries and veins. The cooling water in an engine is transported by hoses to the pipes in the
radiator where it is cooled as it flows. Thermal energy in a hydronic space heating system is
transferred to the circulating water in the boiler, and then it is transported to the desired locations
through pipes.
Fluid flow is classified as external and internal, depending on whether the fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a conduit. Internal and external flows exhibit very different
characteristics. In this chapter we consider internal flow where the conduit is completely filled with
the fluid, and flow is driven primarily by a pressure difference. This should not be confused with
open-channel flow where the conduit is partially filled by the fluid and thus the flow is partially
bounded by solid surfaces, as in an irrigation ditch, and flow is driven by gravity alone.
We start this chapter by defining what a pipe is and differentiate it with open channel. We
continue with a discussion of the dimensionless Reynolds number and its physical significance.
We then discuss the characteristics of flow inside pipes and introduce the pressure drop
correlations associated with it for both laminar and turbulent flows. Then we present the minor
losses and determine the pressure drop and pumping power requirements for real-world piping
systems. Finally, we present an overview of flow measurement devices.

Objectives

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to be able to:

1. Understand the concept of the Reynolds Number (Re) and be able to calculate it for a
pipe.
2. Use Bernoulli’s equation in solving pipe related problems.
3. Explain how friction affects pipe flow.
4. Calculate major and minor loss for both laminar and turbulent flow in pipes.
Discussion
A pipe is any closed conduit through which liquids or gases flow. The conduit should be
filled with fluid, otherwise, it is called an open-channel. A pipe is usually circular in cross-section.
The terms pipe, duct, and conduit are usually used interchangeably for flow sections. In
general, flow sections of circular cross section are referred to as pipes (especially when the fluid
is a liquid), and flow sections of noncircular cross section as ducts (especially when the fluid is a
gas). Small diameter pipes are usually referred to as tubes. Given this uncertainty, we will use
more descriptive phrases (such as a circular pipe or a rectangular duct) whenever necessary to
avoid any misunderstandings.
You have probably noticed that most fluids, especially liquids, are transported in circular
pipes. This is because pipes with a circular cross section can withstand large pressure differences
between the inside and the outside without undergoing significant distortion. Noncircular pipes
are usually used in applications such as the heating and cooling systems of buildings where the
pressure difference is relatively small, the manufacturing and installation costs are lower, and the
available space is limited for ductwork

Reynold’s Number
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface roughness,
flow velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid, among other things. After exhaustive
experiments in the 1880s, Osborne Reynolds discovered that the flow regime depends mainly on
the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid. This ratio is called the Reynolds number
and is expressed for internal flow in a circular pipe as:
𝑫𝑽𝝆 𝑽𝑫
𝑹𝒆 = =
𝝁 𝒗

Where:
𝐷 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒

𝑉 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜌 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

If 𝑅𝑒 < 2000 (𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)

𝑅𝑒 > 4000 (𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)

Between 2000 and 4000, the flow is unstable and may alternate from laminar to turbulent, or
from turbulent to laminar.
Head Losses
a. Major Loss.
This is a continuous loss of head due to friction between the pipe wall and the fluid.

Head Loss Formula:

1. Darcy-Weisbach Formula:
𝑓𝐿 𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷 2𝑔

𝑄
Substituting 𝑣 =
𝐴

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷5

2. Manning’s Formula:
1 2 1
𝑣= (𝑅)3 (𝑆)2
𝑛
2
𝑄 1 𝐷 3 ℎ𝑓 1
𝜋 2 𝑛 ( 4 ) ( 𝐿 )2
=
𝐷
4

10.29 𝑛2 𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 = 16
𝐷3

3. Hazen-Williams Formula:

𝑣 = 0.8492𝐶𝑅 0.63 𝑆 0.54

𝑄 𝐷 0.63 ℎ𝑓 0.54
𝜋 2 = 0.8492𝐶( 4 ) ( 𝐿 )
𝐷
4

10.67 𝐿𝑄1.85
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐶 1.85 𝐷 4.87

Values for f:
a. For laminar flow:
64
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒

b. For Turbulent flow:

 1. Colebrook-White Formula:
𝜀
1 𝐷 2.51
= −2 log( + )
√𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓

2. Prandtl-von Karman Formula:

1 2.51
= −2 log( )
√𝑓 𝑅𝑒 √𝑓

When turbulence is developed fully,

𝜀
1 𝐷
= −2 log( )
√𝑓 3.7

b. Minor losses. There are losses of head due to: sudden change in the cross-section of
the pipe, sudden change in direction due to pipe bends, and obstructions in the pipe
such as gates or valves.
The amount of head loss due to sudden enlargement, contraction, bends or obstruction
is given by:
𝑣2
𝑘
2𝑔

Pipes in Series:

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3

𝐻𝐿 = ℎ𝐿1 + ℎ𝐿2 + ℎ𝐿3

Pipes in Parallel:
 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3

ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿3

EXAMPLES:
1. A pipeline of 350 mm diameter carrying water at an average velocity of 5 m/s branches into
two pipes of 175 mm and 250 mm diameters. If the average velocity in the 250 mm pipe is ¾ of
the average velocity in the main pipe,
a. Determine the average velocity of flow in the 175 mm pipe.
b. Determine the total flow rate in the system.

Solution:
a. Average velocity of flow in the 175 mm pipe.

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 + 𝐴3 𝑉3
𝜋 𝜋 3 𝜋
(0.35)2 (5) = (0.35)2 ( )(5) + (0.35)2 (𝑉3 )
4 4 4 4
𝑽𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
b. The total flow rate
𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1

𝜋 𝒎𝟑
𝑄1 = (0.35)2 (5) = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖𝟏
4 𝒔
2. Three pipes are connected in parallel to each other. The combined discharge of the three
pipes is equal to 0.8 m 3/s.

Pipe Length (m) Diameter (mm) “f”

1 500 150 0.018
2 800 200 0.020
3 900 250 0.019

a. Determine the discharge in Pipe 1.

b. Determine the discharge in Pipe 2.
c. Determine the discharge in Pipe 3.

Solution:

𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 0.8 →1
ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2 = ℎ𝐿3

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷5

ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿2
0.0826(0.018)(500)𝑄1 2 0.0826(0.02)(800)𝑄2 2
=
0.155 0.25

9789.63𝑄1 2 = 4130𝑄2 2
98.94𝑄1 − 64.265𝑄2 = 0 →2

ℎ𝐿1 = ℎ𝐿3

0.0826(0.018)(500)𝑄1 2 0.0826(0.019)(900)𝑄3 2
=
0.155 0.255
9789.63𝑄1 2 = 1446.36𝑄3 2
98.94𝑄1 − 38.031𝑄3 = 0 →3
Go to MODE-5(EQN)-2(3eqns, 3 unknowns)
a b c d
1 1 1 0.8
98.94 -64.265 0 0
98.94 0 -38.031 0

𝑸𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟓𝟔 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

𝑸𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟗𝟔 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

𝑸𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟒𝟖 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔
3. Three pipes are connected in series. The first pipe has a diameter of 500 mm and a length of
600 m. The second pipe has a diameter of 400 mm and a length of 500 m. The third pipe has a
diameter of 300 mm and has a length of 200 m. Use f=0.02 for all pipes. If Q=0.8 m 3/s,
a. What is the total head loss in pipe 1?
b. Determine the total head loss from pipe 1 to 3.
c. What is the equivalent diameter of a single pipe having the same property that could replace
the three pipes?

Solution:
a. Total head loss in pipe 1
0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2 0.0826(0.02)(600)(0.8)2
ℎ𝐿1 = = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎
𝐷5 (0.5)5
b. Total head loss from pipe 1 to 3

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2 0.0826(0.02)(500)(0.8)2
ℎ𝐿2 = = = 51.625 𝑚
𝐷5 0.45

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2 0.0826(0.02)(200)(0.8)2
ℎ𝐿3 = = = 87.02 𝑚
𝐷5 0.35

𝐻𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 20.3 + 51.625 + 87.02 = 𝟏𝟓𝟖. 𝟗𝟒𝟓 𝒎

c. Equivalent diameter of a single pipe having the same property that could replace the three
pipes

𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 600 + 500 + 200 = 1300 𝑚

0.0826(0.02)(1300)(0.8)2
158.945 =
𝐷5
𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟕 𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟑𝟖𝟕 𝒎𝒎

4. Three reservoirs A, B, and C are connected respectively with pipes 1, 2 and 3, joining at a
common junction P. Reservoir A is at elevation 70 m and reservoir C is at elevation 60m. The
properties of each pipe are as follows:
Pipe 1: L=5000 m, D=300 mm
Pipe 2: L=4000 m, D=250 mm
Pipe 3: L=3500 m
The flow from reservoir A to junction P is 0.045m 3/s and for all pipes f=0.018.
a. Find the elevation of the energy grade line at P in m.
b. Determine the flow on pipe 2.
c. Compute the diameter appropriate for pipe 3.

Solution:
 0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷5
0.0826(0.018)(5000)(0.045)2
ℎ𝑓1 = = 6.195 𝑚
(0.3)5
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑃′ = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 − ℎ𝑓1 = 80 − 6.195𝑚

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑃′ = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟖𝟎𝟓 𝒎

The energy at P, denoted as P’, is higher than reservoir b, thus, the flow in pipe 2 is
towards B.

ℎ𝑓2 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑃′ − 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 = 73.805 − 70

ℎ𝑓2 = 3.805 𝑚

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝐷5

0.0826(0.018)(4000)𝑄2 2
3.805 =
0.255

𝒎𝟑
𝑄2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓
𝒔

At junction P, inflow=outflow:
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝑚3
𝑄3 = 0.02
𝑠
 ℎ𝑓3 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝑃′ − 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = 73.805 − 60
ℎ𝑓3 = 13.805 𝑚

0.0826(0.018)(3500)(0.02)2
13.805 =
𝐷3 5
𝐷3 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟐 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟕𝟐 𝒎𝒎

5. Refer to the figure. The discharge in pipe 2 is Q2=0.04 m3/s in the direction shown. Head loss
is directly proportional to Q raised to a certain power 𝛽, such that 𝐻𝐿 = 𝑅𝑄𝛽 . Where R is the
resistance coefficient of the pipe and 𝛽=2 for Darcy and Manning.
a. Determine the discharge in pipe 3.
b. Determine the discharge in pipe 4.
c. Determine the discharge in pipe 1.
d. Determine the required head HP to be handled by the pump in the system.

Solution:
a. Discharge in pipe 3.

ℎ𝐿2 = 𝑅2 (𝑄2 )2 = 2000(0.04)2 = 3.2 𝑚

Thus, the head at the junction = 22+3.2=25.2 m

ℎ𝐿3 = 25.2 − 15 = 10.2 𝑚
ℎ𝐿3 = 𝑅3 (𝑄3 )2
10.2 = 1000(𝑄3 )2
𝒎𝟑
𝑄3 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏
𝒔

b. Discharge in pipe 4.
ℎ𝐿4 = 25.2 − 18 = 7.2 𝑚
ℎ𝐿4 = 𝑅4 (𝑄4 )2
7.2 = 1500(𝑄4 )2
 𝒎𝟑
𝑄4 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝒔

c. The discharge in pipe 1.

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 = 0.04 + 0.101 + 0.0693

𝒎𝟑
𝑄1 = 0. 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝒔

d. Required head HP to be handled by the pump in the system

ℎ𝐿1 = 𝑅1 (𝑄1 )2 = 1400(0.2103)2 = 61.92 𝑚

B.E.E from 1 to 2:
0 + 0 + 10 + 𝐻𝑝 = 0 + 0 + 22 + ℎ𝐿1 + ℎ𝐿2
𝐻𝑝 = 22 + 61.92 + 3.2 − 10
𝑯𝒑 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟏𝟐 𝒎

6. In the figure, reservoir A is the source of the water supply and is at Elev.150 m, B is the
junction at Elev. 91.46m, C is a town at Elev. 30.49m with 25,000 inhabitants. D is another town
at Elev. 15.24m with a population of 30,000. Length Ab is 15,240m, BC is 9150m, BD is 6100m.
Determine the size of the pipes if the consumption is 150 liters per capita per day. For the pipes,
friction factor, f=0.02.
a. Pipe AB
b. Pipe BC
c. Pipe BD

Solution:
150 𝐿 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 ℎ𝑟 𝐿
𝑄𝐵𝐶 = (25,000) ( )( ) = 43.4
𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑑𝑎𝑦) 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 3600 𝑠 𝑠
𝑚3
𝑄𝐵𝐶 = 0.0434
𝑠
 150 𝐿 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 ℎ𝑟 𝐿
𝑄𝐵𝐷 = (30,000) ( )( ) = 52.08
𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑑𝑎𝑦) 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠 3600 𝑠 𝑠
𝑚3
𝑄𝐵𝐷 = 0.05208
𝑠
𝑚3
𝑄𝐴𝐵 =𝑄𝐵𝐶 +𝑄𝐵𝐷 = 0.09548
𝑠

𝐻𝐿𝐴𝐵 = 150 − 91.46 = 58.54 𝑚

0.0826(0.002)(15240)(0.09548)2
58.54 =
𝐷𝐴𝐵 5
𝑫𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝒎

𝐻𝐿𝐵𝐶 = 91.46 − 30.49 = 58.54 𝑚

0.0826(0.002)(9150)(0.0434)2
60.97 =
𝐷𝐵𝐶 5
𝑫𝑩𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝒎

𝐻𝐿𝐵𝐷 = 91.46 − 15.24 = 76.22 𝑚

0.0826(0.002)(6100)(0.05208)2
76.22 =
𝐷𝐵𝐷 5
𝑫𝑩𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟓 𝒎
Self-Assessment Questionnaire
Solve the following situations:

1. Water at 40°F (ρ = 62.42 lbm/ft3 and μ = 1.038 x 103 lbm/ft · s) is flowing through a 0.12-in-
(=0.010 ft) diameter 30-ft-long horizontal pipe steadily at an average velocity of 3.0 ft/s. Determine
(a) the head loss, (b) the pressure drop, and (c) the pumping power requirement to overcome this
pressure drop.

2. Water at 20°C is to be pumped from a reservoir (zA = 5 m) to another reservoir at a higher

elevation (zB = 13 m) through two 36-m-long pipes connected in parallel, as shown. The pipes are
made of commercial steel, and the diameters of the two pipes are 4 and 8 cm. Water is to be
pumped by a 70 percent efficient motor–pump combination that draws 8 kW of electric power
during operation. The minor losses and the head loss in pipes that connect the parallel pipes to
the two reservoirs are considered to be negligible. Determine the total flow rate between the
reservoirs and the flow rate through each of the parallel pipes.

3. Water at 10°C flows from a large reservoir to a smaller one through a 5-cmdiameter cast iron
piping system, as shown. Determine the elevation z1 for a flow rate of 6 L/s.
ASAQ (Answer to Self-Assessment Questionnaire)
1. a. HL = 14.9 ft
b. 6.45 psi
c. 0.30W

2. Q = 0.03 m3/s , Q1 = 0.00415 m3/s , Q2 = 0.0259 m3/s

3. z1 = 31.9 m

Summary

 A pipe is a closed conduit through which a fluid flows.

 Pipe systems consist of inlets, outlets, the pipe itself, bends in the pipe, valves and pumps.
 The mechanical energy equation includes head loss which accounts for friction in the flow.
 Major head losses consist of the friction in a straight pipe while the minor losses take into
account changes in the pipe, including bends and turns as well as valves, pumps, etc.
 Energy from pumps and turbines must be included in the energy equation if they are part
of a pipe system.

References
1. Fluid Mechanics by R.C. Hibbeler
2. Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics by Francis Arjay Luz
3. Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics by DIT Gillesania
4. Hydraulics Reviewer by Ricardo C. Asin
5. [Link]