Module 2: The Moral Agent

Topic 1: The Role of Culture in Moral Agent

I. Learning Outcome

Upon completion of this topic, the student must be able to:

1. articulate the role of culture in moral behavior;

2. evaluate the strengths/ weaknesses of cultural relativism;
3. analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity in their own moral
experiences; and,
4. explain why universal values are necessary for human survival.

II. Learning Contents

Introduction

This module focuses on the moral agent whose moral behavior is conditioned by
his cultural values and belief systems at the same time influenced by different
cultures from the environment. Multiculturalism, on a global scale, equally affects
the moral agent ‘s ethical claims such that moral relativism poses a significant
impact to the understanding of morality. Historically, social change has
revolutionized the qualities of the Filipino moral identity but the search for
universal values is still crucial and necessary for human survival. The
relationship between moral character and values is also tackled and this chapter
ends with a discussion on the stages of moral development.

Culture is a manner of looking at reality by a certain group of people, in a certain

place, and in a certain time in history. It consists of the way people relate to the
world through basic assumptions and images which would more or less give
them a coherent view of reality they experience (Claver, 1978). It involves the
following: a) material living (dress, housing and architecture); b) way of behaving
(customary manners and conduct); c) way of speaking (language use); d) way of
thinking (thought processes); e) way of feeling (shared psychology); f) way of
meaning (arts and symbols); g) way of believing, valuing and meaning (views of
life and attitudes).

Matsumoto (2007) defines human culture as a unique meaning and

information system, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that
allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, coordinate socially to achieve a
viable existence, transmit social behavior, pursue happiness and well-being, and
derive meaning from life. Since every culture is a carrier of a community‘s social
practices and beliefs, the moral behavior and values are also passed on from
generation to the next.

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Culture‟s Role in Moral Behavior

So, how does culture shape moral behavior? Within culture are moral codes that
are practiced through social behavior. Moral codes are a set of rules or
guidelines that a person or group follows in order to live a just and good life.
Moral codes are heavily dependent upon culture. This is because each culture
has its own ideas of what is considered right or wrong, and what is regarded as
good or bad. Moral codes dictate many aspects of our lives, from how we act
with different age groups, to how we dress, and even how we treat other people.

Cultural Relativism

Culture may vary from one location to another, from one society to another, and
from a nation to another nation. And this becomes problematic when the ideas
and practices of right or wrong and good or bad of one ethnic group clashes or
overlaps with another even in a wider context of societies, nations and religions.
This brings us to the idea of cultural diversity and relativism. Cultural relativism
claims that ethical truths are relative-that the rightness of an action and the
goodness of an object depend on or consist in the attitude taken towards it by
some individual or group, and hence may vary from individual to individual or
from group to group. Ethical judgements have their origins in individual or cultural
standards. It is the principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a
culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself. An individual's beliefs and
activities should be understood by others from the perspective of that individual's
own culture (Runes, 1983; Baldwin, 1986; Martin, 2007; De Guzman, 2018).

The idea of cultural relativism is that the terms right and wrong are completely
dictated by the culture that they are being used in. A person‘s actions should be
looked at with all things taken into account, especially the religion and culture
that they grew up in. Supporters strongly believe that one‘s moral codes and
beliefs of right and wrong are influenced completely by the culture in which an
individual is raised. A better way to look at this would be that what is considered
morally correct in one culture, may be deemed wrong in another. It doubts if
there truly is a universal idea of right and wrong. In other words, the cultural
lenses carry with them their own biases of ethical behavior.

Universal Values

Universal human values are those ideals that we believe should be privileged
and promoted in the lives of all human beings in spite of the differing cultures and
societies where we grew up. A value is one of our most important and enduring
beliefs, whether that be about a thing or a behavior. Even though some values
may be universal, they often arise from particular religious, socio-cultural and
political contexts (UNODC, 2018: 21).

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Rachels (2018: 23) points out that there are some moral rules that all societies
must embrace because these rules are necessary for society to exist. The rules
against lying and murder are two examples. Telling the truth and valuing life are
being enforced across cultures although they are expressed differently and
exceptions to the rule cannot be denied. Human rights are also universal in
character. The rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
crafted by the United Nations (UN) originated from debates among multicultural
group of individual philosophers, diplomats and politicians. Universal values arise
from lived experiences and their justifications from others form part of the
discourses if humans are to live in global harmony. They can be uncovered by
different means including scientific investigation, historical research, public
debate and deliberation (UNODC, 2018: 22).

Class Discussion

Activity 1: Form a group of 5 members. Discuss how you think your community
influences your behavior (How does your community influence your behavior?).
Discuss why can‘t all cultural practices be always right? Give three examples to
prove your point.

Activity 2: In order to better understand the idea of cultural relativism, let‘s look at
both the benefits and drawbacks that this theory brings to society. Form groups
of 5 members and do a research on the advantages and disadvantages of
cultural
relativism to be presented in class through online interaction.

Activity 3: Form groups of five members and do a research on the possibility of

universal values despite the proliferation of cultural relativism. The output will be
presented in class through online interaction.

The Filipino Way

The Filipino culture is so rich and diverse that it has greatly transformed in time.
Although it is composed of diverse ethnolinguistic groups spread across the
islands, these cultural communities have somehow retained their indigenous
moral
values and belief systems while consciously or unconsciously embracing
Western
lifestyles brought about by colonial subjugation for five centuries and the adverse
effects of globalization that followed. Our culture and history molded us to what
we
are now.

Unfortunately also, Filipinos are in deep cultural identity crisis. Many of us show
little appreciation for our culture. Our colonizers have been instrumental in

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making us believe that our culture is inferior to theirs to the point that the more
individuals look closer to foreign or Caucasian features using chemicals and
treatments, the more they feel that their status is elevated thereby looking down
on
their fellow Filipinos. With this colonial mentality that we imbibed aside from the
proliferation of diverse lifestyles brought about by rapid global changes, our
ethical
values continue to disintegrate. This situation may seem negative but there is
hope
in every adversity. As generally observed, Filipinos are resilient; they rise from
the
challenges like bamboos that bend but do not break from the ravages of storms
year
round. We can be proud of our identity if we can convince ourselves that the
values
of our culture are the sources of our strength and willpower as a nation worthy of
respect and admiration like those of other cultures (Wostyn, et al., 2004: 110).

Strengths and Weaknesses of Filipinos

Strengths Weaknesses
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao – Opening
1. Kanya-kanya Syndrome – A self-
oneself to others; treating others with
serving attitude that creates envy and
dignity and respect; recognizing them
unhealthy competition among people
as fellow human beings.
.
Characteristics:• Personal ambition that
Characteristics:• Sense of fairness and
ignores the common good• Crab
justice• Concern for others• Ability to
mentality• Lack of appreciation for
empathize with others• Helpfulness
others, resulting in unhealthy competition
and generosity• Practice of hospitality•
Sensitivity to others' feelings and trust
2. Extreme Personalism – The tendency
2. Family Orientation – A genuine and
to interpret actions and issues in a highly
deep love for one's family.
personal manner.
Characteristics:• Commitment and
Characteristics:• Taking comments or
responsibility• Honor and respect•
actions personally• "Thank you with a
Generosity and sacrifice• Sense of
but" (compliment–criticism–compliment
trust and security
approach)
3. Joy and Humor – A cheerful and 3. Passivity and Lack of Initiative – A
fun-loving approach to life despite tendency to rely on fate rather than
challenges. Filipinos often smile, laugh, taking action.
and find humor even during difficult
times. Characteristics:• Excessive pride based
on nationality rather than personal effort•

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Strengths Weaknesses
Complacency and lack of urgency•
Characteristics:• Emotional balance "Bahala na" attitude (leaving things to
and optimism• Healthy disregard for fate)• Too much discussion and planning
excessive power and authority but little action

4. Lack of Discipline – A relaxed attitude

that often leads to poor time
management.
4. Hard Work and Industry – The
willingness to work hard to improve
one's standard of living and provide for
Characteristics:• Impatience and inability
the family.
to delay gratification• Preference for
shortcuts ("palusot" system)•
Carelessness
5. Colonial Mentality – A tendency to
value foreign products, ideas, or cultures
more than local ones.
5. Faith and Religiosity – Strong belief
in God that provides courage, hope,
Characteristics:• Lack of appreciation for
and acceptance of life's realities.
local culture and resources• Greater
("Pampalakas-loob")
admiration for foreign influences than
one's own heritage

6. Lack of Self-Analysis and Reflection –

The tendency to be superficial and fail to
6. Flexibility, Adaptability, and
examine one's own actions critically.
Creativity – The ability to adjust to
changing situations and develop
Characteristics:• Sometimes superficial
innovative solutions.
and flighty

7. Ability to Survive – Resilience and 7. Extreme Family-Centeredness –

resourcefulness in overcoming Excessive loyalty to family, sometimes at
hardships and adapting to difficult the expense of fairness or the common
situations. good.

Characteristics:• Strong family protection

regardless of whether family members
are right

III. Enrichment Activities

Activity 1:

Direction: Visit this site and write one page reaction paper:

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[Link] and
[Link]

Activity 5: Toxic Filipino culture we should fix. Write your reactions on the
pictures depicted below and the negative attitudes they imply.

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Assessment Task:

1. Discuss and relate at least five strengths and five weaknesses of the
Filipino moral character (20 pts)

Strengths:

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Weaknesses

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Topic 2: Moral Character and Virtues
I. Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this topic, the student must be able to:

1. explain the relationship between moral character and virtues;

2. justify why values are both caught and taught; and
3. distinguish character from reputation.

II. Learning Contents:

Introduction

Striving for moral virtue rests upon an individual‘s moral character. His character
is important in moral choices because he cannot simply separate his character
from his choice of actions. Every action carries with it an imprint or a stamp of his
character. For this reason, character affects seriously his maturity in such a way
that it determines the kind of moral choices he makes and the kind of person he
ought to be. Precisely, it is in character formation that one will not regret in the
end the virtuous life he has chosen.

Good character must be cultivated and brought to maturity so that somehow

when he will be confronted with moral decisions, he can determine seriously the
right choices. Character then, is not something bestowed by a higher being,
neither a privilege to be enjoyed, but it is a task to be fulfilled by constant struggle
to do good. It demands a habitual inner renewal of the person because it is from
this that character is built.

Moral characters are dispositions of both the heart and mind to do virtuous acts.
Max Scheler (2012) would suggest that one lives in his acts, permeating every
act with his peculiar character. This means that an individual needs to evaluate
each act he does if it helps him become a better person or not. This is a
challenge because the greatest problem a person encounters is the fact that he
becomes an alien to himself: pretending to be someone whom he is really is not.
It is always a choice to prefer and affirm higher values through being careful with
his actions and always pattern them for the realization and actualization of his
own character as a person. What an individual needs to strive for is to prove that
principles should not be easily swayed by street people ‘s opinions, fake news,
media tricks, propaganda and selfish interests. Character is tested by a lot of
moral struggles. One cannot simply change decisions of personal sacrifice and
toil for anything that will weaken his character.

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This is where the role of family and community comes into play. An African
adage would put it this way: ―it takes a village to raise a child.‖ Parents are
directly responsible for the moral upbringing of their children surrounded by
different institutions that take care of the welfare of everyone. This wider
community of persons is where virtue is introduced and formed. It is a task and a
challenge for an individual to grow, develop and mature in character.

The Interplay of Moral Character and Virtue

The Greek word ―virtue‖ means excellence. Socrates once noted that man
should aim to learn to live virtuously, and modern man is no exception: ―The
unexamined life is not worth living‖. All are encouraged to engage in a never-
ending task of doing what is good. His pupil Plato highlights four virtues in
particular, which were later called cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance
and justice. Other important virtues are fortitude, generosity, self-respect, good
temper, and sincerity. In addition to advocating good habits of character, we
should also avoid acquiring bad character traits, or vices, such as cowardice,
insensibility, injustice and vanity.

Both Aristotle and Aquinas also believed that people have a desirable end goal
or purpose and that developing excellences of character (virtues) leads to human
happiness and good moral reasoning. Good is that which is done with good
intention and with the knowledge that the results would be good.

Going back to Aristotle, he used the term virtue ‘to express our moral obligations.
Virtue may be defined as any disposition of character or personality that an
individual desires in him or others. Virtues are means between deficiency and
excess, or vices. He warns that we should avoid these vices and focus on the
mean, or virtue. which ―is such as right reason declares it to be‖. In others,
virtues are those depositions of character which an individual considers to be
good. Character development guides actions. In order to be of good character,
then, once one knows the good, one must also desire it. The will must desire and
incline itself to the good. Our conscience guides us to judging right or wrong
action but that needs training and informing also. Conscience needs to know the
good and to be listened to in order for us to act according to it. To listen and to
act both require dispositions, desires, and tendencies ordered to the good
(Mitchell, 2015).

Teaching and Learning Activities

Activity 6: Write a letter to your (imaginary) child in the future, telling him/her
about how you are presently struggling to be the best kind of person you strive to
be.

Activity 7: Research online the lives of Nelson Mandela and Adolf Hitler. Do a
comparative character analysis/study on both individuals.

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Assignment for the next topic: Download this article and outline the important
points. Critiques of Kohlberg‘s Model of Moral Development: A Summary by Paul
C. Vitz [Link]
Critiques-of- Kohlberg%C2%[Link]

III. Enrichment Activities

1. President Duterte has signed a law institutionalizing good manners and

right conduct (GMRC) and values education as core subjects in the K to
12 curriculum both in public and private schools. Is this necessary? Justify
your answer. (15 points each item)

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2. In terms of character versus reputation, can public life be separated from

private life?

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Topic 3: Stages of Moral Development

I. Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this topic, the student must be able to:

1. identify and explain briefly each stage of moral development; and

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 2. evaluate Kohlberg‘s theory based on the critiques against his theory.

Introduction

Experience tells us that learning what is appropriate or inappropriate, good or

bad and right or wrong takes a progressive start from early childhood to
adulthood. The importance of parents and institutions of learning and socializing
are formative of moral development. Moral development refers to the process
whereby an individual form a progressive sense of what is right and wrong,
proper and improper. Human moral sense is commonly seen to involve a
movement from simple and finite definitions of right and wrong to more complex
ways of distinguishing right from wrong (Dorough, 2011). Piaget and Kohlberg
are two leading psychologists who theorized that our moral sense develops
progressively.

Piaget‟s Stages of Moral Development

Jean Piaget observed four stages in the child ‘s development of moral

understanding of rules, based largely on his observation of children ‘s games:

The first stage characterizes the sensorimotor period of development (under four
years) in which the child is still mastering motor and social skills and
unconcerned with morality. In the second stage (4-7) game playing is egocentric;
children don‘t understands rules very well, or they make them up as they go
along. There is neither a strong sense of cooperation nor of competition. They
exhibit unconditional respect for rules and submission to authority.

The third stage (7-11) is characterized by incipient cooperation. The child

recognizes that rules are arbitrary and can be changed with group consensus.
Social interactions become more formalized as regards rules of the game. The
child learns and understands both cooperative and competitive behavior. But one
child ‘s understanding of rules may still differ from the next, thus mutual
understanding still tends to be incomplete. In the fourth stage (11-12)
cooperation is more earnest and the child comes to understand rules in a more
legalistic fashion. It is the stage of genuine cooperation in which the older child
shows a kind of legalistic fascination with the rules. He enjoys settling differences
of opinion concerning the rules, inventing new rules, and elaborating on them.

Kohlberg‟s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg admired Piaget‘s approach to studying children‘s

conceptions of morality but he went beyond those and proposed his own
elaborate theory.

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The first level of moral thinking is that generally found at the elementary school
level. In the first stage of this level, people behave according to socially
acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority figure (e.g.,
parent or teacher). This obedience is compelled by the threat or application of
punishment. The second stage of this level is characterized by a view that right
behavior means acting in one's own best interests.

The second level of moral thinking is that generally found in society, hence the
name "conventional." The first stage of this level (stage 3) is characterized by an
attitude which seeks to do what will gain the approval of others. The second
stage is one oriented to abiding by the law and responding to the obligations of
duty.

The third level of moral thinking is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the

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majority of adults. Its first stage (stage 5) is an understanding of social mutuality
and a genuine interest in the welfare of others. The last stage (stage 6) is based
on respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience.
While Kohlberg always believed in the existence of Stage 6 and had some
nominees for it, he could never get enough subjects to define it, much less
observe their longitudinal movement to it.

Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages one
stage at a time. That is, they could not "jump" stages. They could not, for
example, move from an orientation of selfishness to the law-and-order stage
without passing through the good boy/girl stage. They could only come to a
comprehension of a moral rationale one stage above their own. Thus, according
to Kohlberg, it was important to present them with moral dilemmas for discussion
which would help them to see the reasonableness of a "higher stage" morality
and encourage their development in that direction. The last comment refers to
Kohlberg's moral discussion approach. He saw this as one of the ways in which
moral development can be promoted through formal education. Note that
Kohlberg believed, as did Piaget, that most moral development occurs through
social interaction. The discussion approach is based on the insight that
individuals develop as a result of cognitive conflicts at their current stage.

Critiques of Kohlberg‟s Theory

There were a good number of psychologists who somehow did not agree with
Kohlberg's model and their
arguments are valid. Vitz (1994) pointed out that this model became popular for
many years
especially in education. In spite of that, the model suffers from a remarkable
number of grave
weaknesses, many of which constitute grounds for rejecting it. Despite
Kohlberg's rebuttal of his
critics, the system has not recovered from the multiplicity and gravity of the
critiques and at
present there is no convincing reason to accept Kohlberg's system. The
weaknesses in his model have
become increasingly clear and, in spite of salvage attempts, it appears to be
receding as a focus
of research and theoretical interest. To summarize those critiques, they are the
following:

1. The critique of a ‗completely good self‘

2. The feminist critique
3. The moral relativity critique
4. The ‗no moral responsibility‘ critique
5. The critique of Kohlberg‘s atheism

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 6. The empathy and emotion critique: the rejection of Stage 1
7. The empirical critique: the inability to find various stages
8. Over-dependency on language: Critique of all stages
9. The methodological critique of the Kohlberg scale
10. Structure vs. content: the empirical critique
11. Structure vs. content: the theoretical critique
12. The ideological critique
13. The sexual morality critique
14. The narrative critique
15. The virtues critique
16. Recent philosophical critiques

Student Activity 1: Draw a chart of their life‘s journey using Manila paper or
PowerPoint to show incipient moments in their lives and where they are now in
their moral development.

Student Activity 2: Group presentation: Three cases/stories featuring moral

agents at different stages using Manila paper. The groups identify the stages of
the agents in each of the three cases and justify their answer.

III. Enrichment Activity

1. There are 16 criticisms on Kohlberg‘s theory. Choose one of these

criticisms which you think is the most plausible argument and justify your
answer. (20 points)

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