C HAPTER

 800–1215

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At the outset of the early
Middle Ages, western Europe
was a land without empire.
With the Roman Empire gone, new forms of
Knights in combat, from Bible of Guiars de Moulins and Pierre Comestor, c. late 1200s.

community took hold. Christianity spread

throughout western Europe, forging unity
at a spiritual level. Strong, new political
systems also arose, uniting much of Europe.

>;C;Æ
The relationships between people and their govern-
ments have changed greatly across time. In this chap-
ter, you will read about sweeping political changes in
Europe during the Early Middle Ages, some of which
continue to shape citizenship and government today.

 Æ  
800
The pope crowns
Charlemagne 962 1066
Emperor of the Viking raids in Europe Otto the Great becomes William the
 Æ Romans. 800s emperor of the Holy Conqueror wins the
  Roman Empire. Battle of Hastings.
y{{ r{{{

 Æ 900 960 1060s

  The Classic Age of China is reunified under The Empire of Ghana
Maya civilization ends. the Song dynasty. reaches its height.

370 CHAPTER 13
 History's Impact video program
Watch the video to understand the impact of the
feudal system in Europe.

Reading
like a This illustration shows
Historian knights in conflict during
the Middle Ages. Knights fought in service to kings
and nobles, helping them to gain and maintain
1215 political power.
King John signs Analyzing Visuals What does this scene suggest
Magna Carta.
about warfare in the Early Middle Ages? How accu-
rs{{ rate do you think this illustration is in showing
1192 a medieval battle? Explain your answer.
The first shogun takes See Skills Handbook, p. H26
power in Japan.

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 371

 GEOGRAPHY Starting Points
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In the 800s one 1. Compare What do you think caused the

major Christian kingdom, the Frankish Empire, political boundaries in western Europe to Listen to History
ruled a huge portion of western Europe. This change between 815 and 1215?
Go online to listen to an
kingdom reached great heights under the rule 2. Predict What do you think hap- explanation of the starting
of Charlemagne (SHAR-luh-mayn). By 1215 pened during the Middle Ages to allow points for this chapter.
many kingdoms in Europe had divided, others Christianity to spread so far in such a
had become unified, and even more had become short period of time? [Link]
Keyword: SHL EMA
Christian.

372 CHAPTER 13
 SECTION

1 Charlemagne’s Empire
As you
BEFORE YOU READ read, take
MAIN IDEA READING FOCUS KEY TERMS AND PEOPLE notes in a graphic
organizer like this
Through conquest and 1. How did Charlemagne and Charlemagne
one. Take note of how
social change, Charlemagne the Carolingians build the Papal States
Charlemagne’s actions
brought much of western Frankish Empire? counts
led to an empire and
Europe together into a 2. How did Charlemagne’s to social change.
single empire. actions contribute to shap-
Empire Society
ing a new society?

Could one man restore the lost

glory of the Roman Empire? A CHRISTMAS
SURPRISE
Cheers and excitement shattered the
silence of Christmas morning in Rome in the year 800. From
Saint Peter’s Basilica—the city’s most powerful church—
word spread quickly through the city. For the first time in
more than three centuries, Rome had a new emperor.
The new emperor was Charlemagne, the king of the
Franks. His coronation was designed to surprise everyone,
perhaps even Charlemagne himself! During a Christmas
mass, Pope Leo III walked to where Charlemagne was
kneeling and lowered a golden crown onto the king’s head.
Addressing him as Emperor of the Romans, Leo hailed
Charlemagne as the heir of Rome’s ancient rulers.
Throughout Rome, people rejoiced. After more than
300 years, they had an emperor again! Even more exciting,
however, was the fact that the emperor had been crowned
by the pope, whom they saw as God’s representative. To
many people, the coronation was a sign that God had cho-
sen their new emperor to restore the glory of their ancient
empire. They thought Rome had been reborn.

Building an Empire
Though it was a surprise to some people, the crowning
of Charlemagne as emperor was not a random decision.
With the fall of Rome, Europe had entered into a period
of political, social, and economic decline. Small kingdoms
competed to control lands once under Rome’s central
authority. Among these were Charlemagne’s predeces- This medieval manuscript shows
sors, the kings of the Franks. By 800 the Franks ruled Pope Leo III crowning Charlemagne
much of western and central Europe. The leaders most Emperor of the Romans.
influential in the expansion of the Franks all belonged
to one family. That family—the family to which Char-
lemagne belonged—was the Carolingians.

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 373

ACADEMIC The Early Carolingians One of the first of his foes. When Charlemagne defeated a peo-
VOCABULARY members of the Carolingian family to gain ple, he incorporated their land into his sphere
incorporated power was Charlemagne’s grandfather, Charles of influence and formed alliances with local
combined or made Martel. Charles was not a king. Instead, he rulers. In this way, he increased both the size
into one body or and the power of the Carolingian kingdom.
unit served as a political adviser and a war leader
for the Frankish king. As war leader, he led Pope Leo III recognized Charlemagne’s
the Frankish army in many crushing defeats skill as a warrior and called on him for help
of their opponents, most notably Muslims from when the Lombards attacked the Papal States
Spain. From his skills in battle Charles earned in 774. The Papal States made up a region in
the nickname Martel, which means “hammer.” central Italy that was under the control of the
Charles’s son Pippin III was also a skilled pope. Charlemagne answered the pope’s call for
leader. Like his father, Pippin won many battles help. The Franks swept into Italy and defeated
and captured new lands for the Franks. Unlike the Lombards. Charlemagne became king of
Charles, Pippin would become king—the first the Lombards, as well as the Franks.
king of the Carolingian dynasty. In 751 he The pope was grateful for Charlemagne’s
forced the old king of the Franks to step down help against the Lombards, and his grati-
and Pippin took the throne for himself. When tude became even greater in the year 799. In
Pippin died in 768, he passed the kingdom on to that year, angry supporters of the previous
his son, who was also named Charles. That son pope attacked Leo and ran him out of Rome.
was the ruler we know today as Charlemagne. Once again, Leo called on the Franks for help.
Responding to his call, Charlemagne had Leo
Charlemagne’s Rise to Power The name escorted back to Rome and restored to power.
Charlemagne is from Old French for Charles The pope thanked Charlemagne by naming
the Great. In his case, the name was accurate, him Emperor of the Roman People. The pope’s
for Charlemagne was truly a great leader. In granting of this title put forward two ideas
fact, many historians consider him one of the about Charlemagne. First, the title implied
most important leaders in European history. that Charlemagne had restored the glory of the
The foundation of Charlemagne’s success Roman Empire in Europe. Second, the pope’s
was his military power. Each year, he assem- action suggested that Charlemagne’s rule had
bled an army and led it into battle against one the full backing of the church and of God.

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Charlemagne Besiges Agolant, from

Chroniques de France ou de Saint
Denis. Roy 16 G VI, c. 1325–1350.

Charlemagne was a skilled warrior and commander who won

countless victories. Charlemagne was not just a fighter, though.
As emperor, he supported religion and education to strengthen
his rule. What political reasons might have motivated
Charlemagne to support education and religion?
374
Charlemagne’s Rule Charlemagne had
tremendous power as emperor. However, the
A New Society
empire was so large that it was not easy to rule. Although Charlemagne is known mostly as a
Soon after taking power, Charlemagne made warrior and a political leader, he also made
several changes to make his government both sweeping changes to Frankish society. Some of
efficient and effective. the changes he introduced helped shape life for
One step that Charlemagne took to improve hundreds of years.
his government was to select a center for his
Education One aspect of society in which
government. He established a permanent capi-
Charlemagne was particularly interested was
tal, which earlier Frankish kings had not done,
education. He was personally interested in
at Aachen (AH-kuhn) in what is now Germany.
learning and spent much of his time studying.
There, Charlemagne built a huge palace and a
In an era in which education was not widely
cathedral to reflect his own greatness. READING
appreciated, he wanted leaders in his empire to SKILLS
Because Charlemagne stayed in Aachen,
be able to read and write. To achieve this goal, Using Word
he could not personally oversee his entire
Charlemagne ordered churches and monaster- Origins If you
empire. He chose officials called counts to rule know that cathedral
ies to start schools staffed by educated priests
parts of the empire in his name. Counts were comes from a Latin
and monks. Students in these schools studied
bound by oath to obey Charlemagne. In return, term meaning “of a
religion, music, grammar, and other subjects. bishop’s seat,” who
counts were granted large tracts of land and
To further encourage learning in his empire, would you expect to
given considerable authority. Still, they had to preside over a
Charlemagne invited noted scholars from all
answer to Charlemagne for their decisions. cathedral?
over Europe to Aachen. These scholars spent
To keep tabs on his counts, Charlemagne
much of their time teaching. When they were
sent inspectors throughout the empire. The
not teaching, the scholars studied and copied
inspectors visited counts, rewarding those who
ancient texts. They sent copies of the texts to
did their jobs well and punishing those who did
monasteries all over Europe, where monks
not. They helped ensure that counts remained
made more copies. Had the scholars and monks
loyal and that the empire was well run.
not done this, many valuable works from the
Summarize How did Char- ancient world might have been completely lost
lemagne turn his kingdom into an empire? during the Middle Ages.

A devout Christian,
Monk Eadwine at work on a manuscript, c. 1150.
Charlemagne built a huge
cathedral in Aachen.

At Charlemagne’s
request, scholars and
monks in Aachen spent
hours studying and
copying ancient writings.

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 375

 Religion In addition to improving educa-
tion, Charlemagne wanted to preserve and
CHARLEMAGNE’S
spread Christian teachings. The strength of
ACHIEVEMENTS
the emperor’s faith is described by his friend As emperor, Charlemagne made sweeping changes to
and biographer, Einhard: many aspects of Frankish society.
HISTORY’S VOICES
Politics
“great
Charlemagne practised the Christian religion with
devotion and piety . . . As long as his health
• Unified Europe for the first time since the fall of Rome
lasted he went to church morning and evening
with great regularity, and also for early-morning Education
Mass, and the late-night hours.
”
—Einhard, The Life of Charlemagne
• Built schools and preserved ancient writings

Religion
As emperor, Charlemagne worked closely
• Spread Christianity among conquered people
with the church to create a unified Christian
empire. He accomplished this, in part, by
force. During some military campaigns, Char- Law
• Developed a written legal code
lemagne ordered those he conquered to convert
to Christianity, under penalty of death. He then
sent monks to live among the conquered people
to help Christianity take root.
maintain his vast holdings. Regional kings
Law Charlemagne honored the traditional grew strong and, once again, disunity spread
laws of the tribes that he brought under his across western Europe. There was trouble in
rule. Most of these laws had only existed in oral the Carolingian house, too. Charlemagne’s
tradition. After Charlemagne became emperor, grandsons fought amongst themselves for the
he had many of the tribal laws recorded, and throne. In 843 the grandsons agreed to divide
he allowed tribal legal codes to maintain their the empire into three parts—a western, a mid-
separate existence. At the urging of the pope, dle, and an eastern kingdom. The empire was
Charlemagne also issued many new laws that crumbling. To make matters worse, invaders
enforced Christian teachings. challenged the empire from all sides.
Unfortunately, with Charlemagne’s death
in 814, the empire lost its center. Charlemagne Find the Main Idea How
had not built a bureaucracy strong enough to did Charlemagne change society in his empire?

[Link]
SECTION  ASSESSMENT Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL EMA HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Identify What new title was Charlemagne given by Pope 3. Rank Using your notes and a graphic organizer like the one
Leo III? What significance did that title have? below, rank Charlemagne’s achievements in what you think
b. Explain How did counts and inspectors help Charlemagne was their order of importance in strengthening the empire.
effectively rule his empire? Achievements
c. Evaluate Do you think Charlemagne deserves the title
Great? Why or why not?
2. a. Describe What changes did Charlemagne make to educa-
tion in the Frankish Empire?
b. Analyze How did Charlemagne’s personal religious beliefs
affect life in the empire?
c. Make Judgments Which of Charlemagne’s reforms do you 4. Narration Write a letter describing Charlemagne’s corona-
think was the most significant? Why? tion as though you were a Roman who witnessed the event. In
your letter, explain what happened and why.

376 CHAPTER 13
World
Literature
About the Reading A popular form of entertainment in
medieval Europe was storytelling. Through their craft, sto-
rytellers had the power to transform minor historical figures
into heroes and insignificant events into legends. Such is the
case with The Song of Roland, a story that dates back to the
time of Charlemagne. The story is based on a real event, a
minor skirmish between Charlemagne’s forces and Christian
Basques, a people who live in the Pyrenees Mountains that
divide Spain from France. Over time, the story changed. The
Basques were transformed into Muslims and Charlemagne’s
nephew Roland, who played only a minor role in the real
battle, becomes a hero of epic proportions.
Ask yourself which details are likely
based on fact and which are literary creations.

Excerpt from

>;ÆED=Æ
ÆÆÆÆÆE<ÆEB7D: This stained-glass window from Chartres cathedral shows Roland
in combat against an enemy warrior.

The battle is fearful and full of grief. there is no house whose veil of walls does not crumble.
Oliver and Roland strike like good men, A great darkness at noon falls on the land,
the Archbishop, more than a thousand blows, there is no light but when the heavens crack.
and the Twelve Peers do not hang back, they strike! No man sees this who is not terrified,
the French fight side by side, all as one man. and many say: “The Last Day! Judgment Day!
The pagans die by hundreds, by thousands: The end! The end of the world is upon us!”
whoever does not flee finds no refuge from death, They do not know, they do not speak the truth:
like it or not, there he ends all his days. it is the worldwide grief for the death of Roland.
And there the men of France lose their greatest arms;
they will not see their fathers, their kin again,
or Charlemagne, who looks for them in the passes. [Link]
Tremendous torment now comes forth in France, A?BBI World Literature
a mighty whirlwind, tempests of wind and thunder,  READING LIKE A HISTORIAN Keyword: SHL WRLIT
rains and hailstones, great and immeasurable, 1. Identify Supporting Details How does the story-
bolts of lightning hurtling and hurtling down: teller use details about the day of Roland’s death to
it is, in truth, a trembling of the earth. communicate Roland’s importance?
From Saint Michael-in-Peril to the Saints, 2. Interpret Literature as a Source What effect might
from Besançon to the port of Wissant, changing the enemy army in the story from Basque to
Muslim have had on listeners ?
See Skills Handbook, p. H28

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 377

 SECTION

 ;MÆDL7:;HI
BEFORE YOU READ As you
read
MAIN IDEA READING FOCUS KEY TERMS AND PEOPLE take notes in a
graphic organizer
Invasions and migrations 1. Why did many Europeans navigation
like this one. List and
changed the political and fear the Vikings? sagas
describe the peoples
cultural landscapes of west- 2. What made Magyar raids in Leif Eriksson
that invaded Europe.
ern Europe during the early eastern Europe so devastat-
Middle Ages. ing to people there? People Description

3. Why did Muslims raid towns

in southern Europe?

“Where did they come from?” That

question was on the minds of the monks
of Lindisfarne Monastery on the morning
of June 8, 793. Just a few hours before, the monks had been
going about their daily business, tending crops, praying and
copying manuscripts. Now many of them were dead, killed
by the swords and spears of raiders. Those left alive watched
as their monastery’s precious treasures were loaded into
ships that slipped quietly out to sea. Dazed, the monks won-

5)&
'*345 dered exactly what had led to this terrible destruction.

What the monks did not know was that the raiders were

 
The ruins of Lindisfarne
Vikings from what is now Denmark. Nor did they realize
that the raid on their monastery was only the beginning of
Europe’s newest threat. The attack on Lindisfarne was the
beginning of a 200-year period of raids on northern Europe,
Monastery lie on an island a period sometimes called the Age of Vikings.
off Britain’s coast.

The Vikings
The relative peace Charlemagne brought to western
Europe did not last long. Even before Charlemagne died,
invaders had begun nibbling at the edges of his empire.
The invaders came from many directions, pouring across
plains and seas into Europe. Of all these invaders, the
fiercest were the warriors called the Vikings.

Origins of the Vikings The people we know as

the Vikings came from northern Europe. They lived in
Scandinavia, an area that today includes the countries
of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden. Because of their
northern homelands, the Vikings were also called the
Norsemen or the Northmen.

378
 In the Viking homelands, society was rural Reading
and agricultural. Most people worked as fish- like a Historian
ers or farmers. Although the sea provided
plenty of fish, Scandinavia’s soil was not very
fertile. Viking farmers often had trouble grow-
7JLJOH
3BJET
ing enough grain to keep people fed. As Scandi- Analyzing Point of View Few historians would argue that the
navia’s population grew, food shortages became Viking raids were anything but savage. Still, historians may look at
a common problem. Looking for new sources of the raids in completely different ways. Interpretations of past events
food and wealth, some Viking leaders decided often come with differing points of view. These different interpreta-
tions may reflect differences in the historians’ backgrounds, interests,
to take what they needed from other people.
and the sources that they use.
Thus began the Viking raids.
The earliest written accounts of the Viking raids were written
by those who fell prey to Viking exploits. In this passage, present-day
Viking Raids The Vikings were superb ship-
historian C.H. Lawrence discusses the Viking raids faced by monks in
builders and sailors. Their ships were capable
the Middle Ages. To analyze the author’s point of view, think about
of withstanding heavy ocean waves and carried
crews of as many as 100 warriors. In addition, • the author’s interests and sources
the Vikings’ skills at navigation, or planning • the main points in the argument
the course across the sea, allowed them to cross • the use of emotional and
expanses of ocean in search of wealth, prestige, factual language The author’s use of fearsome
foes suggests that he is tell-
and new lands.
ing the story from the monks’
The first targets of Viking raids were Eng- point of view.
land and northern France, neither of which is
far from Scandinavia by sea. As time passed,
the Vikings began raiding places farther and The monks had to face more fearsome foes in
farther from their homeland, even Kiev and the heathen Vikings and Saracens [Muslims]. In
Constantinople were not safe. Nor were inland the ninth century Christian Europe was under
locations safe. The Vikings sailed their ships siege. Ireland, England, and the north of Gaul
upriver, attacking cities such as Paris and were ravaged by the Northmen. Abbeys near
Aachen. All over Europe, people lived in fear the coasts or on inland waterways of those areas
of the Vikings, and with good reason. Writings were sitting targets. Lindisfarne, Clonfert, and
of the period are filled with haunting descrip- Clonmacnoise were among the first to be sacked.
tions of fierce Viking raids: The more accessible abbeys near the coast of
HISTORY’S VOICES northern Gaul and along the valleys of the

“Vikings
The number of ships grows: the endless stream of
Seine, the Meuse, and the Loire fell victims to
never ceases to increase. Everywhere the the onslaught of the predators.
Christians are victims of massacres, burnings, plun- —C. H. Lawrence, Medieval Monasticism, 1996
derings: the Vikings conquer all in their path, and
no one resists them.
”
—A monk of Noirmoutier, quoted in The Viking The excerpt is taken from a book about
World by James Graham-Campbell medieval monasteries, many of which
were destroyed by Viking raids.
People were constantly afraid because they
had no warning that the Vikings were coming. A?BBI
Their fast-moving ships allowed the Vikings to 
A?BBI READING LIKE A HISTORIAN

approach a target quickly, so people had little 1. Author What point of view might a historian writing about
time to prepare. Armed with swords, axes, monasteries have of the Vikings?
spears, and shields, warriors leapt from the 2. Details Which details from the selection reveal the author’s
ships to attack. They killed or captured any point of view?
defenders who stood against them, grabbed any
3. The Sources Do you think the earliest written accounts of
precious items they could find, and returned Viking raids would be a good source for understanding the
to their ships to sail off. The people they cap- Vikings’ point of view? Explain.
tured were taken to distant lands and sold into
See Skills Handbook, H32
slavery.

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 379

The Magyars invasions, they ordered small, fast raids against
cities and towns in southern France and Italy.
As the Vikings were terrorizing northern and Among the places the Muslims raided was
western Europe, the Magyars were invading Rome, the home of the pope and the spiritual
from the east. Originally from central Asia, the center of Christianity in western Europe. The
Magyars were nomads who settled in what is raiders destroyed many of the city’s ancient
now Hungary. Like the Vikings, the Magyars churches, including Saint Peter’s Basilica. The
were fierce warriors. Unlike the Vikings, they loss of these churches was a painful blow to
were not sailors. On horseback, the Magyars, European Christians.
who were skilled riders, could easily outma- In addition to raiding cities, Muslim fleets
neuver the armies of their opponents. blocked Byzantine trade in the Mediterranean.
The Magyars planned their raids carefully. Muslim pirates looted the ships and sold their
They never attacked heavily defended towns, crews into slavery. More importantly, they cut
choosing instead to attack smaller settlements. off trade routes between Italy and its eastern
After looting these settlements, the Magyars allies. The popes had little choice but to turn to
fled, easily outrunning any armies sent to stop the Franks for protection. As a result, the bal-
them. Using these tactics, they raided eastern ance of power in western Europe shifted.
France and Germany, northern Italy, and the
western Byzantine Empire. Make Generalizations
Eventually, the Magyars gave up their Why did Muslims launch small, fast raids against
nomadic ways. In doing so, they lost their major Christian lands?
advantage in battle. Once the Magyars had a
permanent home, they could not easily run
from opposing armies. In the mid-900s King
Otto the Great of Germany crushed a huge
SECTION  ASSESSMENT
[Link]
Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL EMA HP
Magyar army, ending the Magyar raids. Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
1. a. Identify What skills allowed the Vikings to conduct raids in locations
Infer Why were Magyar raids far from their homeland?
so difficult to stop? b. Draw Conclusions Why do you think the period between 800 and
1000 in western Europe is sometimes called the Age of Vikings?
c. Evaluate Do stories like the Viking sagas make good sources for
The Muslims historical information? Why or why not?
Muslims first came to Europe in large num-
2. a. Identify Who were the Magyars? What parts of Europe did they
invade and settle?
bers as conquerors. In 711 a Muslim army from
b. Explain How did the Magyars’ decision to settle down in a permanent
northern Africa crossed the Strait of Gibraltar location help bring an end to their raids?
and made rapid conquest of Spain. The Mus- 3. a. Describe Where did the Muslim raiders who attacked Europe in the
lims would rule the Iberian Peninsula for more 800s and 900s come from?
than 700 years. Their capital city, Cordoba, b. Contrast How did Muslim attacks on Europe in the 800s differ from
became one of the wealthiest and most cul- those in the 700s?
turally advanced cities of the medieval world. c. Elaborate Which Muslim tactic do you think would have caused more
Muslim Spain was also, for the most part, a problems for the people of southern Europe, small raids or a full-scale
land of tolerance, where Muslims, Christians, invasions? Explain your answer.
and Jews lived together in relative peace. Critical Thinking
By 732 the Muslims had swept across the 4. Compare and Contrast Use your notes and a
Pyrenees into France. There a Muslim raiding graphic organizer like the one at right to compare
party was stopped short at the Battle of Tours and contrast the Viking, Magyar, and Muslim
by Charles Martel, Charlemagne’s grandfather. raiders.
Although later European accounts marked this
as a major Muslim defeat, Muslims regarded
this as only a minor skirmish.
5. Description Write a description of a Viking, Magyar, or Muslim raid
In the 800s and 900s Muslim leaders as though you are an inhabitant of the town being raided. Bring your
changed their strategy. Instead of full-scale description to life by choosing vivid adjectives to describe the sights,
sounds, and emotions that surround you.

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 381

 SECTION

 >;Æ;K:7BÆ7D:ÆÆ
7DEH?7BÆOIJ;CI
As you
BEFORE YOU READ read take
MAIN IDEA READING FOCUS KEY TERMS AND PEOPLE notes about life in
the Middle Ages in a
In Europe, during the 1. What duties and obligations were knights
graphic organizer like
Middle Ages, the feudal central to the feudal system? fief
this one.
and manorial systems 2. How did the manorial system gov- vassal
governed life and ern the medieval economy? feudal system Feudal lord
required people to per- fealty Vassal
3. What was daily life like for people
form certain duties and manorial system Manor lord
on a manor?
obligations. serfs Peasant
Serf

What did it mean to be a knight?

5)&
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For William Marshal, knighthood did
not convey the same image of dashing
heroes in shining armor that we imagine today. For William,
,/*()5
knighthood meant a lifetime of military and political service.
As a young knight, he gained fame and wealth by besting
other knights in tournaments all over France and England.
From there, William went on to serve the first of four English
kings. He fought in dozens of battles, risking his life to pro-
tect the English crown.
William was handsomely rewarded for his service. Kings
and queens respected William, and he was even granted
the honor of knighting one of England’s crown princes. He
was named Earl of Pembroke and his marriage to one of
England’s wealthiest women made him lord over vast lands
and a castle. However, William’s career was not always easy.
Despite his skill as a warrior, William was badly wounded
many times. He also spent considerable time as a prisoner.
For his sacrifices and his successes, many people consider
William Marshal the greatest knight who ever lived.

The Feudal System

Knights like William Marshal did not exist at the begin-
ning of the Middle Ages. Soldiers fought mostly on foot,
not on horseback, and were part of large armies headed
by kings. As the Middle Ages progressed, however,
knights began to emerge as key figures in Europe. What
was responsible for this change in society? This medieval manuscript
shows a knight pledging himself
in service to a lord.
382 CHAPTER 13
Battle of Hastings, from Chronique de Normandie, c. 1450, courtesy of The British Library. Knights in battle at the
Battle of Hastings in 1066

FEUDAL
OBLIGATIONS
Feudalism was built upon relation-
ships of obligation and service.

A Knight’s Duties to His Lord

• Provide military service
• Remain loyal and faithful
• Give money on special occasions

A Lord’s Duties to His Knights

• Give land
• Protect from attack
• Resolve disputes between knights

The Origins of Feudalism Feudalism in The land given to a knight for his service
Europe originated, in part, as a result of the was called a fief (FEEF). Anyone who accepted
Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invasions. In the a fief was called a vassal, and the person from
face of these invaders, kings all over Europe whom he accepted it was his lord. Historians
found themselves unable to defend their lands sometimes call this system of exchanging land
and the lands of their nobles from attack. for service the feudal system, or feudalism.
The nobles, who could no longer count on
their kings’ armies for protection, had to find Feudal Obligations Lords and vassals in
a way to defend their own lands. To achieve the feudal system had duties to fulfill to one
this defense, nobles built castles. Often, castles another. These duties were the ties that bound
were built on hills because hilltop locations people together.
were easier to defend. Most early castles were For example, a knight’s chief duty as a vas-
not the elaborate structures we see in movies sal was to provide military service to his lord.
and books. They were usually built of wood, not He had to promise to remain loyal to his lord
stone, and were simply a place for the noble and and not turn against him. This promise was
his family to take shelter in case of attack. called an oath of fealty, or loyalty:
HISTORY’S VOICES
Knights and Lords To defend their cas-
tles, nobles needed trained soldiers. The most “you
Hear you my Lord [name] that I, [name] shall be to
both faithful and true, and shall owe my Fidel-
important of these soldiers were knights, ity unto you, for the Land that I hold of you, and
highly skilled soldiers who fought on horse- lawfully shall do such Customs and Services, as my
back. Mounted knights in heavy armor were Duty is to you, at the times assigned. So help me
the best defenders nobles could have.
Being a knight was expensive. Knights ”
God and all his Saints.
—from The Manner of Doing Homage and Fealty
needed weapons, armor, and horses, all of
which were expensive to acquire and maintain. A knight also had certain financial obliga-
For this reason, knights demanded payment tions to his lord. If the lord was captured in
for their services. This payment did not usually battle, for example, the knight was obliged to
take the form of money. Instead, most knights help pay ransom for his release. A knight also
were paid for their services with land. gave money to his lord on special occasions.

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 383

 One such occasion was the knighting of the
manor lord’s eldest son.
The Manorial System
In return for this loyalty and service, a lord The feudal system was essentially a political
had to meet certain duties to his knights. He and social system. A related system was at the
had to treat them fairly, not demanding too heart of medieval economics. This system was
much of their time or money. The lord also had called the manorial system because it was built
to protect a knight that was attacked by ene- around large estates called manors.
mies. In addition, the lord had to act as a judge
in disputes between knights.
Lords, Peasants, and Serfs Manors were
generally owned by wealthy lords or knights.
A Complicated System The feudal system Bound by feudal duties, lords were too busy to
in Europe was incredibly complex. Only in rare farm their own lands. Instead, peasants farmed
cases was it clear who owed service to whom. the manor fields. Manor lords gave peasants
This complexity of the feudal system stemmed protection and plots of land to cultivate for
from many factors. themselves. In exchange, peasants had to pro-
First, a person could be both a lord and a vide the lord with labor and other services.
vassal at the same time. Some knights who Most of the peasants on a manor were serfs,
were given large fiefs subdivided their fiefs into workers who were legally tied to the manor
smaller parts. They gave small pieces of their on which they worked. Serfs were not slaves,
land to other knights in exchange for their loy- meaning that they could not be sold away from
alty. These other knights could even subdivide the manor. Still, serfs were not free to leave a
their land further if they chose, creating many manor or marry without their lord’s permis-
levels of obligations. sion. In addition, serfdom was hereditary: if a
Second, one knight could serve many lords. child’s parents were serfs, so was the child.
ACADEMIC
VOCABULARY There was no prohibition against a knight Manors also had some free people who
prohibition an accepting fiefs from more than one noble. rented land from the lord. Free people might
order or law that Indeed, such occurrences were common. If the also have included land-owning peasants and
forbids skilled workers, such as millers and black-
two lords that a knight served went to war
with each other, he had to choose which to fol- smiths. Most manors also had a priest to pro-
low into battle. vide for spiritual needs.
In theory, almost everyone who was part of
the feudal system served more than one lord.
A Typical Manor Most of a manor’s land was
occupied by fields for crops and pastures for
Everyone in a country was supposed to be loyal
animals. Farmers in the Middle Ages learned
to the king. In fact, most fealty oaths were care-
that leaving a field empty for a year helped
ful to note that the knight would be loyal to
improve the soil, thus improving the size and
both his lord and to the king. In practice, how-
quality of harvest. In time, this practice devel-
ever, not everyone was so loyal. Across Europe,
oped into the three-field crop rotation system.
powerful nobles sometimes found themselves
In this system, one field was planted in spring
to be as strong as the kings they were supposed
for a fall harvesting. Another field was planted
to serve. Some of these nobles, who might bear
in winter for spring harvesting, and the last
the title duke, count, earl, or baron, ignored
field remained unplanted for a year.
their duties as vassals. In their lands, the cen-
Besides fields, each manor included a forti-
tral authority of the king gradually faded.
fied manor house for the noble family and a
Third, the rules guiding feudal obligations
village where the peasants and serfs lived. It
were specific to time and place. For example,
was the goal of each manor lord to make his
the rules that bound a knight and a lord in
manor self-sufficient, or able to produce every-
England might not apply to the same relation-
thing people there needed to live. As a result,
ship in France. These rules could also change
a typical manor would also include a church, a
over time. Just keeping track of one’s duties
mill to grind grain, and a blacksmith.
required a great deal of effort.
Analyze How did lords and
Summarize How did the
peasants benefit from the manorial system?
feudal system work?

384 CHAPTER 13
 HISTORY CLOSE-UP

A Typical Manor The manor house or castle

provided protection from
Manors were large estates owned by wealthy lords. attack for all people of
the manor.
Peasants and serfs lived and worked on manors.
Most manors produced most of the food and other
goods that people living there needed.

Peasants worked on the

lord’s lands and also farmed
their own. They had to give
the lord part of their crop.

In return for the privilege

of living on the lord’s
land, peasants often had
to pay a tax on grain
ground at the mill.

Even people’s spiritual

needs were provided for on
a manor, which typically
had its own church.

New farming tools, such as the

heavy plow, and techniques,
such as crop rotation, helped
farmers grow more food in the
Middle Ages.

Skills
FOCUS INTERPRETING VISUALS
Peasants and lords had different duties and obligations
on a manor.
Compare and Contrast How was life on a manor
similar and different for peasants and lords?
See Skills Handbook, p. H26

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 385

 Daily Life in the Middle Ages Life in a Village In villages, peasant fami-
lies lived in small, one to two room cottages
Life in the Middle Ages was not easy. People did that they built themselves. The floor was made
not enjoy many of the comforts we have today, of packed dirt. The windows were kept small
and most died relatively young. Of course, the to prevent heat loss. The straw thatch roof was
lives of nobles and peasants differed greatly. the most critical part of the construction. It had
to be layered thick enough to be waterproof,
Life in a Castle Medieval castles sometimes
but not so heavy as to collapse on those living
doubled as manor houses. Early castles were
inside.
built for defense, not for comfort. Most castles
The inside of a peasant’s cottage was quite
had few windows and tended to be stuffy in the
simple. Other than wooden stools and benches,
summer, cold in the winter, and dark inside
peasants had few pieces of furniture. For bed-
almost all of the year. Because the nobles of
ding, they used straw, sometimes stuffing it
the castle had to share space with many other
into a sack to make a rough mattress. Bedding
people, including soldiers and servants, private
straw had to be replaced regularly as unwel-
rooms were very rare.
come guests, bedbugs and lice, favored it.
The main room of a castle was the hall. The
Peasant families cooked their meals over an
nobles of the castle used this large room for
open fire set in the middle of the floor. A typical
dining and entertaining. Carpets often hung
meal might include brown bread, cheese, vege-
on the walls, but they were not used on the
tables and, on occasion, pork or bacon. Because
floors. In the earliest castles, the noble family
there were no chimneys, the house was often
slept at one end of the hall, with their bedrooms
full of smoke. In addition, sparks from the fire
separated from the main living area by sheets.
could easily ignite the straw roof and start a
Later castles often had separate bedrooms.
massive blaze.
Near the bedrooms were the latrines. Waste
The whole family had to rise before dawn to
traveled either down a long pipe that emptied
start their day. Men and boys—and sometimes
onto the ground or down a chute directly into
women—went to work in the fields. Women
a moat or river. Instead of toilet paper, people
and girls cooked, sewed, cared for animals, and
used hay. People bathed in an area of the castle
grew vegetables. During harvest times, the
that was separate from the latrines. Usually a
entire family worked in the field all day.
wooden bathtub was placed in the garden in
warm weather and indoors near a fireplace in Contrast How was life in a
cold weather. castle different from life in a village?

[Link]
SECTION  ASSESSMENT Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL EMA HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Define What was the feudal system? What roles did lords 4. Summarize Draw a graphic organizer like the one below. In
and vassals play in it? each box, list the responsibilities that each group had toward
b. Analyze How did oaths of fealty and feudal obligations tie the other.
knights to their lords?
c. Elaborate Why was the feudal system so complicated? Lords Knights Peasants

2. a. Define What was the manorial system? Who participated

in this system?
b. Compare and Contrast How were the lives of nobles and
peasants similar? How were they different?
c. Elaborate Why do you think most lords wanted their man- 5. Narration Write a journal entry from the point of view of
ors to be self-sufficient? a man or woman in the early Middle Ages. In your entry,
3. a. Describe What was village life like in the Middle Ages? describe what your daily life is like and what duties and obli-
b. Explain What made the manorial system an effective gations you fulfill.
economic system?

386 CHAPTER 13
 SECTION

 >;ÆHEMJ>ÆÆ
E<Æ ED7H9>?;I
As you
BEFORE YOU READ read
MAIN IDEA READING FOCUS KEY TERMS AND PEOPLE take notes about the
growth of monar-
The power of kings grew 1. How did the power of the Alfred the Great
chies in Europe.
and the nature of monarchy English monarchy grow and William the Conqueror
changed across Europe in change? Domesday Book Monarchy Details
the early Middle Ages. 2. How did kings increase their Eleanor of Aquitaine England

powers in the other monar- Magna Carta France

chies of Europe? Parliament Holy Roman

Empire
Hugh Capet
Spain
Otto the Great
Portugal
Reconquista

Æ
Did a comet foretell the Norman
Conquest of England? In 1066 King
Harold of England was traveling with
several of his knights. A comet, the one we know today as
Halley’s comet, appeared in the sky above. Thinking it was a
new star, the men stared at the comet in wonder. They had
 Æ
never seen such a sight before. What could it mean?
Harold and his men soon decided that the new star was
a sign that change was coming to England. They were right.
However, the coming change was not one that Harold and
  
his knights would appreciate. Within the year the Normans, The appearance of Halley’s comet was
under the command of Duke William of Normandy, invaded recorded in the Bayeux Tapestry. It was
England and took the English throne. created before 1476 but when and by
whom is unknown.

387
FACES OF HISTORY Angry at being passed over, William
Eleanor of Aquitaine decided to take the crown by force. He gath-
was one of the most
  Æ powerful people of the
ered an army and sailed to England. Harold
marched out to meet him, and the two armies
E<Æ GK?J7?D; Middle Ages. Having
inherited a fief about
fought in the Battle of Hastings. William won.
c. 1122–1204 He became King William I of England, but he
one-third the size of is better known as William the Conqueror.
present-day France, she was wealthy in her own right. She gained William was a stronger king than Anglo-
more power by marriage. At age 15 she married the king of France. Saxon rulers had been. One of his first acts was
The couple, however, grew apart and ended their marriage in 1152. to claim all the land in England as his personal
Soon after, she married Henry II of England, adding her lands to property. He then divided the land into fiefs to
his kingdom. In the early years of their marriage, Eleanor ruled the give to his Norman soldiers and thus created a
couple’s French territories. Over time, Eleanor and Henry’s relation- new nobility. The new nobles owed their posi-
ship soured, and Henry imprisoned Eleanor for 15 years. Upon Henry’s tions and their loyalty directly to the king.
death in 1189, Eleanor helped her son Richard I rule England. To learn more about his kingdom, William
Infer In what ways was Eleanor an unusual woman? ordered a survey taken. He wanted to know
who lived in each part of England, what they
owned, and how much they could afford to pay
in taxes. The survey results were collected in
the Domesday Book, a book that William used
to create a central tax system for England.
The English Monarchy William and the Normans introduced many
England was one of the first countries in elements of French culture into England.
Europe to develop a strong central monarchy. Because most of England’s new nobles had
Under the Anglo-Saxons, who first unified the been born in France, they spoke French and
country, and then under the Normans, who practiced French customs. Most of the lower
conquered the Anglo-Saxons, the English kings classes, on the other hand, kept their old Anglo-
exercised considerable power. Saxon language and habits. Still, the link to
French culture would last for centuries.
Anglo-Saxon England The Anglo-Saxon
rulers of England were descendants of the The English in France As king, William
Angles and Saxons who invaded the island in had considerable power. The kings who fol-
the 400s. For most of the Anglo-Saxon period, lowed him, though, gained even more power
READING England was divided into seven small king- as time passed. This new power came largely
SKILLS doms, each with its own laws and customs. from the acquisition of new lands, many of
Using Word In the 800s Danish Vikings invaded Eng- them in France.
Origins If you
know that Danelaw land and conquered several of these kingdoms. William’s descendants inherited his posi-
comes from combin- The Vikings never conquered all of England. tion as the duke of Normandy, so they ruled
ing the Old English Their campaign was cut short in 878 by Alfred that region in France. In addition, William’s
words for “the the Great, then king of Wessex in southern great-grandson Henry II was the son of a
Danes” and “law,”
whose laws do you England. Alfred drove the Viking forces north French duke. When his father died, Henry also
think applied in the of London to what became the Danelaw, a ter- inherited his father’s lands in France, which
lands north of ritory under Viking control. became part of England.
London? Even more territories in France were added
The Norman Conquest Alfred’s descen- to the English crown when Henry married
dants ruled England for most of the next two Eleanor of Aquitaine, a powerful French duch-
centuries. In 1066, however, the king died with- ess. Together, the two ruled all of England and
out an heir, and two men claimed the crown. about half of France. In theory, their French
One was Harold, an Anglo-Saxon nobleman holdings made the English kings vassals of the
from England. The other was William, the duke king of France. In practice, however, the kings
of Normandy in France and a distant relative of England were much stronger than their
of the dead king. Supported by the English French counterparts and ignored any feudal
nobility, Harold was named the new king. obligations they were supposed to have.

388 CHAPTER 13
Magna Carta By about 1200 the power of and town in England. It had the power to cre-
the English king had started to worry some ate new taxes and to advise the king on law-
nobles. They feared that kings would abuse making. Members of Parliament also advised
their powers and take away the nobles’ rights. the king on other matters of royal policy.
The nobles’ concerns reached a crisis point With the help of Parliament, Edward Today the British
in 1215 under King John. Caught up in a war strengthened England’s central government Parliament is the
and reformed its system of laws. However, highest legisla-
with France in which he lost almost all of Eng-
tive body in the
land’s French holdings, John found himself Edward saw Parliament as a tool for strength- United Kingdom.
short of money. He tried to raise money with a ening the monarchy rather than limiting it. He
new tax on the nobility, but the nobles refused maintained the power of the king over Parlia-
and, instead, took up arms against the king. ment, keeping Parliament in a secondary role.
Eventually, the rebellious nobles forced
Summarize How did Magna
John to accept a document outlining their
Carta and Parliament change the English monarchy?
rights. This document was called Magna Carta.
It contained many provisions that restricted
the king’s power. For example, Magna Carta
stated that the king had to obtain the consent
PRIMARY SOURCES
of the nobles before raising taxes. The docu-
ment also ended the king’s ability to arrest and
punish people without cause or to take their A Summons to Parliament
property without following legal procedures. Parliament took on a greater role in English govern-
The importance of Magna Carta grew in the ment during the rule of King Edward I. This letter, sent
years after its signing. It set forth ideas about by the king in 1295 to call a noble to a meeting of
limiting government and executive power. Parliament, shows the nature of this new form of
For example, by restricting the king’s power, government.
Magna Carta suggested that even kings were
“The king to his beloved and faithful
not above the law. Because of this, many people
relative, Edmund, Earl of Cornwall, Earl is a title
today consider Magna Carta one of the most of nobility.
greeting. Because we wish to have a
important historical documents in the forma-
consultation and meeting with you and
tion of modern democracies.
with the rest of the principal men of our king-
Parliament Although Magna Carta dom, as to provision for remedies against the
addressed many of the nobles’ concerns, some dangers which in these days are threatening
nobles were still not satisfied. The king was our whole kingdom; we command you, strictly
constantly asking for their approval to raise enjoining you in the fidelity and love in
taxes to finance wars or debts of which they which you are bound to us, that on the Lord’s
disapproved. To obtain a say in how the king- day next after the feast of St. Martin, in the
dom was run, the nobles started another rebel- approaching winter, you be present in person
lion in the 1260s. at Westminster, for considering, ordaining and
As part of the agreement that ended the doing along with us and with the
rebellion, the king agreed to meet with mem- prelates [high-ranking clergy], Similar letters were sent
and the rest of the principal men to important people
bers of the nobility, the clergy, and the middle
and other inhabitants of our throughout England.
class to discuss key issues facing the country.
The resulting council eventually developed kingdom, as may be necessary for
into Parliament, the governing body that still meeting dangers of this kind.”
makes England’s laws today.
For several years the powers of Parliament Skills
FOCUS READING LIKE A HISTORIAN
remained undefined. One of the first kings
to clarify the role of Parliament and to work 1. Explain Why is the king calling a meeting of Parliament?
effectively with this new governing body was 2. Analyze Primary Sources What does the king’s choice of
Edward I. The Parliament he summoned in words suggest about his relationship with nobles?
1295 included not only nobles and clergy mem-
See Skills Handbook, p. H25
bers but representatives from every county

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 389

 THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE, 1100
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Holy Roman Empire Recall that the

 
emperor Charlemagne managed to unify most
   INTERPRETING MAPS of western Europe into one empire. After he
1. Place About how many states made up the Holy Roman died, however, his empire split into two parts.
Empire in 1100? The western part of the empire became France.
2. Regions What difficulties might have been part of governing The eastern part became known as Germany.
the Holy Roman Empire because of its political divisions? Unlike France, which remained somewhat uni-
fied under one king, Germany separated into
several small states. Each state had its own
ruler, most of whom used the title of duke.
In 936, Otto the Great, the duke of Saxony,
Other European Monarchies gained enough support from other German
The changes in the English monarchy were nobles to succeed his father, Henry I, as king
unique. During the Middle Ages, kings in other of the Germans. Otto worked to unite German
European countries also worked to gain more lands, and he conquered parts of northern
power, but their experiences were very differ- Italy. When nobles challenged Pope John XII,
ent from those of the English rulers. he turned to Otto for help. The pope rewarded
Otto’s support by crowning him Emperor of the
France After Charlemagne’s reign, the kings Romans in 962. In time, the territories united
of France did not rule much territory at all. Their under Otto became known as the Holy Roman
rule was largely limited to an area around the Empire. It was called holy because the empire
cities of Paris and Orléans. The rest of what we had the pope’s support. It was called Roman
think of as France was in the hands of powerful because Charlemagne, when he had ruled over
nobles, including the king of England. Many of the area, had held the title Emperor of the
these nobles, who owned more land and had Roman People.
more power than the king, ignored the king’s For the most part, Holy Roman Emper-
wishes and ruled as they pleased. ors made decisions and passed laws with the

390 CHAPTER 13
help of dukes, who maintained full authority an effort called the Reconquista (reh-kahn-
in their own lands. Support from the dukes KEES-tuh), or reconquest. The largest of the
was needed not only to make laws but also to Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula
become emperor. Beginning in the 1100s, Holy and the leader of the Reconquista was Castile
Roman emperors did not inherit their position. (ka-STEEL). In 1085 the king of Castile won a
Instead, they were elected. A select group of great victory over the Moors by capturing the
electors—the dukes of certain powerful states city of Toledo. His victory inspired the rulers
and a few archbishops—met when an emperor of two other Christian kingdoms, Aragon and
died to choose his successor. The person cho- Portugal, to join in the Reconquista.
sen to be the new emperor then had to travel Together, the three Iberian kingdoms won
to Rome to be crowned by the pope before his victory after victory over the Moors. In the
power was fully recognized. early 1100s the Portuguese drove the Moors
completely out of their lands and established
Spain and Portugal In Spain and Portugal, the Kingdom of Portugal. Meanwhile, the rul-
the growth of the monarchy was coupled with ers of Aragon and Castile continued to push
religious struggles. Today these two countries south. In 1236 they captured Córdoba itself.
share the Iberian Peninsula, which had been Within a few years, the Christians had pushed
conquered by Muslims in the early 700s. Called the Moors almost all the way out of Spain. Of
Moors by Christians, these Muslims had built a the once powerful Moorish state, only a small
powerful state centered in the city of Córdoba. kingdom called Granada, protected by moun-
Christians ruled only a few small kingdoms in tains in the far south, remained.
the far northern part of the peninsula. The Moors were not driven completely off
As early as 722 Christian rulers expanding the Iberian Peninsula until 1492, when they
westward had begun to fight the Moors, trying were finally forced to surrender Granada. Mod-
to drive them out of Europe. Over time, Chris- ern Spain also has its origins in the late 1400s.
tian rulers continued their westward push, A royal marriage between the rulers of Aragon
but they met with little success until the early and Castile had united the two kingdoms. By
1000s. By this time, a civil war had broken out combining their countries and their power, the
in Muslim Spain, weakening the Moorish lead- two found that they ruled one of the strongest
ers. Watching from afar, Christian leaders took countries in all of Europe.
advantage of this weakness.
Christian states embarked on a series of Analyze How did rulers in
campaigns to retake the Iberian Peninsula, France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Spain gain power?

4
[Link]
SECTION ASSESSMENT Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL EMA HP

Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People Critical Thinking

1. a. Describe How did William the Conqueror come to rule 3. Identify Cause and Effect Use your notes to create a chart
England? How did the English government change after he like the one below. For each monarchy, describe the growth of
took the throne? the king’s power and its effects.
b. Explain How did Magna Carta and the development of King’s Power Effects
Parliament limit the power of England’s kings?
c. Predict How might England’s history have been different
if the Normans had not arrived and England had remained an
Anglo-Saxon kingdom?
2. a. Identify What family gained power in France in the 900s?
How did that family gain power?
b. Draw Conclusions How did the Reconquista lead to the
growth of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies? 4. Persuasion Write a letter to King John of England as though
c. Elaborate How do you think having elected emperors you were one of his advisors. In your letter, you must advise
affected the balance of power between emperors and nobles him either to accept or reject Magna Carta. Remember to use
in the Holy Roman Empire? logical reasons to support your position.

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 391

 SECTION

 EM;HÆE<ÆJ>;Æ>KH9>
BEFORE YOU READ Take
notes on
MAIN IDEA READING FOCUS KEY TERMS AND PEOPLE the major changes in
the medieval church.
Reform and changes swept 1. What was the nature and piety
through the Christian influence of religion in the pontificate
Changes
Church, one of the most Middle Ages? Pope Gregory VII
influential institutions in 2. What led to the growth of Henry IV
medieval Europe. papal power in Europe?
3. What changes in monasti-
cism were introduced in the
Middle Ages?

#"3&'005
Who would have the power to

JO
UIF 4/08 make an emperor wait in the

snow, begging for an audience?
Late in January 1077, Henry IV, the Holy Roman emperor,
left Germany. He was headed to Canossa, a castle in northern
Italy. Once he arrived at Canossa, Henry stripped off all his
royal finery and donned a simple shirt woven from rough
cloth. Shoeless, Henry waded into the deep snow before the
castle and waited for an invitation to enter. For three days he
stood there, shivering and eating nothing, before the castle’s
huge gates were finally opened to him.
Canossa was the home of Matilda, the countess of Tus-
cany, but Henry had not come to see her. He was there to
see the only man powerful enough to make the mighty Holy
Roman emperor wait—the pope, Gregory VII.

Religion in the Middle Ages

The pope is the head of the Roman Catholic Church.
Early popes were seen as spiritual leaders, but during
the Middle Ages they became powerful political figures
as well. How did this change come about?
While manorialism and feudalism encouraged local
loyalties, Christian beliefs brought people across Europe
together in the spiritual community of Christendom. The
majority of people in Europe were, at least in name, Chris-
tian, and religion touched almost every aspect of their
lives. Major life events—baptism, marriage, death—were
marked by religious ceremonies. Monks acted as peace-
makers in disputes and prayed for the safety of rulers
Emperor Henry IV waited three days to meet and armies. Church officials also served as teachers and
with Pope Gregory VII and the Countess Matilda. record keepers. As the people’s main connection to the
Henri IV asking Countess Matilda to intervene in the conflict with the church, members of the clergy had great influence.
pope, from a poem by Donizon, Italian school, 1100s.

392 CHAPTER 13
 Sometime around 1000 the influence of Leo’s reforms brought him into conflict
the church increased dramatically. At that with both political and religious leaders. Kings
time, there was a great upwelling of piety in resented what they saw as interference with
Europe. Piety is a person’s level of devotion to the bishops in their kingdoms. Many bishops,
his or her religion. For centuries Europeans too, believed the pope had no authority to tell
had been members of the Christian church, them how to act. Among those who rejected
but at this time many believers became more Leo’s authority was the patriarch, or bishop,
devout. Across Europe, people’s participation of Constantinople. Leo excommunicated the
in religious services increased, and thousands patriarch in 1054, an action that split the Chris-
flocked to monasteries to join religious orders. tian Church in two. Those who agreed with Leo
were Roman Catholics, and those who sided
Identify Cause and with the patriarch were called Orthodox.
Effect Why was the medieval clergy so influential?
Popes and Politics Popes gained influence
not only over people’s religious lives but also
Growth of Papal Power over politics in Europe. The pope became the
The common people of Europe were not the head of a huge network of ecclesiastical, or
only ones inspired by a new sense of piety in church, courts, that heard cases on religious or
the Middle Ages. Within the Christian Church moral matters. Popes also ruled territories, such
itself, many clergy members sought ways to as the Papal States in Italy. To defend their ter-
improve conditions and end corrupt practices. ritories, popes had the ability to raise armies.
For example, several popes hired the Normans
Church Reforms In the 900s and 1000s, to fight wars on their behalf. The Crusades, a
popes had little authority. Although the pope series of wars launched against the Muslims of
was considered the head of the entire church, Southwest Asia, were launched by popes.
local bishops actually made most important
religious decisions. As a result, the papacy was
not held in high regard. Adding to this lack of Pope Urban II presiding over the Council of Clermont,
Papal Authority France, c. 1490. Courtesy of Bibliotheque Nationale
esteem was the fact that few popes during this
Some medieval popes had
time were noted for their religious devotion.
enough authority to sum-
Most of them were nobles who were more con-
mon nobles and even kings
cerned with increasing their own power than
to councils, such as this one
overseeing spiritual matters.
that launched the Crusades.
In 1049 the first of a series of clever and
capable popes dedicated to reforming the
papacy came to power. His name was Leo IX. A
man of high ideals, Leo believed that Europe’s
clergy had become corrupt and set out on a
mission to reform it. Among Leo’s top concerns
was simony, the buying and selling of church
offices. He traveled throughout Europe, seek-
ing out and replacing bishops suspected of
such offenses.
Bishops guilty of particularly bad offenses
were excommunicated, or cast out of the
church. For Christians in the Middle Ages,
there was no greater punishment. A person
who had been excommunicated could not take
part in the Eucharist, and the belief was that
one who died while excommunicated would
not be saved. Through his reforms, Leo became
more active in governing the church than any
other pope had been for centuries.

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 393

 COUNTERPOINTS
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Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV believed that he and Pope Gregory VII argued that the pope’s spiritual
other rulers had been chosen by God. He denounced authority was greater than the secular power wielded
the political power of popes, whom he did not believe by kings. He believed that the pope’s power came from
had the authority to pass judgment on kings. God, but a king’s came from more worldly sources.

“Our Lord, Jesus Christ, has called us to kingship, but has

not called you to the priesthood. For you have risen by “Who does not know that kings and princes derive their
origin from men ignorant of God who raised themselves
these steps: namely, by cunning, which the monastic above their fellows by pride, plunder, treachery, mur-
profession abhors, to money; by money to favor; by der—in short, by every type of crime—at the instiga-
favor to the sword . . . You have also touched me, one tion of the Devil, the prince of this world, men blind
who, though unworthy, has been anointed to kingship with greed and intolerable in their audacity? . . . Does
among the anointed. This wrong you have done to anyone doubt that the priests of Christ are to be con-
me, although as the tradition of the holy Fathers sidered as fathers and masters of kings and
has taught, I am to be judged by God alone.
” princes and of all believers? Would it not
be regarded as pitiable madness if a son
Emperor Henry IV should try to rule his father or a pupil
—from a letter to Pope Gregory VII, 1076 his master?
”
Pope Gregory VII
—from a letter to the bishop of Metz,
Germany, 1081
A?BBI
 INVESTIGATING HISTORY
Analyze How did Gregory’s and Henry’s views of the papacy differ? How did each man’s view relate to his own position?

Conflict over Bishops Although popes Gregory’s response was to excommunicate

had increased their power, they still came into Henry. He also called on the clergy and nobility
ACADEMIC conflict with political leaders. Popes of the late of Germany to replace the emperor with a more
VOCABULARY 1000s were firmly resolved to change the way suitable candidate. This response frightened
resolved members of the clergy were chosen. For years, Henry. Fearing that he would lose his throne,
determined kings and other leaders had played an active he traveled to Canossa, Italy, where Gregory
role in choosing clergy. Kings chose most of the was staying to beg forgiveness. Though reluc-
bishops who served in their lands, and the Holy tant, Gregory lifted the excommunication.
Roman emperor had named several popes. The Gregory and Henry continued to fight over
reform popes did not think that anyone except bishops for years. In fact, the conflict over
the clergy should choose religious officials. this issue outlived both men. Later popes and
The issue of clergy selection became critical emperors finally reached a compromise: local
READING during the pontificate, or papal term in office, of clergy would choose bishops, but their choices
SKILLS could be vetoed by secular rulers. More impor-
Pope Gregory VII in the late 1000s. At that time,
Understanding tant than the details of the conflict, though, was
Word Origins If the Holy Roman emperor was Henry IV. In 1075
you know that Henry chose a new bishop for the city of Milan the fact that Gregory had been able to stand up
scathing comes in northern Italy. Gregory did not approve of to the emperor. The pope had become one of the
from an Old Norse his choice and removed the bishop. In response, strongest figures in Europe.
word meaning “to
injure,” what do you
Henry wrote a scathing letter to the pope, stat-
Analyze In what ways did
think was the tone ing that Gregory had no authority over him or
popes become stronger in the Middle Ages?
of Gregory’s letter? any other ruler.

394 CHAPTER 13
Changes in Monasticism Cistercian Life
In the early Middle Ages, monasteries had
As shown in this medieval manuscript,
been founded all across Europe by men seek-
the Cistercian order was dedicated to
ing lives of contemplation and prayer. These
leading simple lives. Monks spent part of
monasteries were often paid for by local rulers,
each day in prayer and part at work.
who then helped to choose the abbots who led
the monasteries. By about 900, however, rul-
ers had stopped choosing qualified abbots. Far
from being religious, many abbots held their
positions just for the prestige it brought to
them or their families. In monasteries led by
these abbots, the strict Benedictine Rule was
largely abandoned.
In the early 900s a small group of monks
sought to return monasticism to its strict
roots. They established a new monastery at
Cluny, France, where they would live strictly
according to the Benedictine Rule. To prevent
the onset of corruption, the monks of Cluny
reserved the right to choose their own abbot,
rather than having one appointed to them.
Over time, Cluny became the most influen-
tial monastery in Europe. Monks from Cluny
established daughter houses, whose leaders
had to answer to the abbot of Cluny. In addi-
tion, other monasteries in France, Spain, and
Italy adopted Cluny’s customs and agreed to
SECTION  ASSESSMENT
[Link]
Online Quiz
Keyword: SHL EMA HP
follow the direction of its abbots. Over time, Reviewing Ideas, Terms, and People
Cluny became the core of a network of mon- 1. a. Define What is piety? How did increased piety affect religion in the
asteries that stretched across western Europe. Middle Ages?
For some monks, however, even the Bene- b. Draw Conclusions Why did a shared religion make people feel like
dictine life was not strict enough. These monks part of a larger community?
wanted lives free from any worldly distractions. 2. a. Identify What goals did Leo IX have as pope? How did he achieve
Not finding what they wanted in Benedictine those goals?
houses, they created new orders. b. Make Generalizations What was the relationship between Pope
The most popular of these new monastic Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV like? Why?
orders was the Cistercian (sis-TUHR-shuhn) c. Elaborate Explain why both kings and popes wanted the right to
order. Cistercian monasteries were usually choose bishops.
broad estates built outside of towns to ensure 3. a. Describe How was Cluny different from earlier monasteries?
isolation. These monasteries were undecorated b. Summarize Why were monks frustrated in the early Middle Ages, and
and unheated, even in winter. The monks who what steps did they take to change things?
lived there divided their time between prayer Critical Thinking
and labor, such as farm work or copying texts. 4. Summarize Draw a chart like the one at right. Popes Kings
Some other new orders were even stricter Use your notes on changes in Christianity to
than the Cistercians. Members of these orders identify how those changes affected different Other
Monks Christians
lived like hermits in tiny cells, having no con- types of people in the Middle Ages.
tact with other people. Those who joined such
orders were widely admired for their piety and
dedication to their faith. 5. Description Write a paragraph describing what life was like in a
Cistercian monastery. Use vivid language and specific details to make
Find the Main Idea What
your writing more interesting.
changes were introduced to monasticism?

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 395

 CHAPTER

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Historical Context The four documents below reveal different aspects of and
attitudes toward Magna Carta.
Task Study the selections and answer the questions that follow. Then, using
evidence from these selections and from the chapter, write an essay explaining
whether Magna Carta is truly a foundation of democratic government or just
another document that upheld feudal relationships.

Selections from Magna Carta An Artist’s View

Magna Carta outlined the rights of nobles and limited The painting below was created by an unknown art-
the king’s power, which a group of nobles thought he ist who copied an engraving by artist Alonzo Chappel.
was abusing. The excerpts below describe just some of Created several hundred years after the signing of
the new agreements between king and nobles. Magna Carta, it shows the artist’s view of the mood
at the historic event.
To all free men of our kingdom we [the monarchy] have
also granted, for us and our heirs for ever, all the liberties
written out below, to have and to keep for them and their
heirs, of us and our heirs:

20. For a trivial offence, a free man shall be fined only in

proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a serious
offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive
him of his livelihood.

21. Earls and barons shall be fined only by their equals, and in
proportion to the gravity of their offence.

29. No constable may compel a knight to pay money for

castle-guard if the knight is willing to undertake the guard
in person, or with reasonable excuse to supply some other
fit man to do it. A knight taken or sent on military service
shall be excused from castle-guard for the period of this
service.

39. No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of

his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived
of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with
force against him, or send others to do so, except by the
lawful judgement of his equals or by the law of the land.

King John signing Magna Carta, undated illustration after painting by Chappel.
396 CHAPTER 13
A Contemporary’s Account A Historian’s View
Roger of Wendover was a monk and a historian, who C. Warren Hollister is one of many historians today
lived at the time of the signing of Magna Carta. The to explore the different meanings of Magna Carta in
excerpt below is from his account of the signing. its historical context.

King John, when he saw that he was deserted by almost Its authors were looking neither forward nor backward
all, so that out of his regal superabundance of followers but were contending with problems of the moment.
he scarcely retained seven knights, was much alarmed Magna Carta’s most important clauses were designed
lest the barons would attack his castles and reduce them to keep the king within the bounds of popular and
without difficulty, as they would find no obstacle to their feudal custom. Royal taxes not sanctioned by custom,
so doing; and he deceitfully pretended to make peace for for example, were to be levied only with the consent of
a time with the aforesaid barons . . . and told them that, the great men of the kingdom. But implicit in the tradi-
for the sake of peace, and for the exaltation and honour tional doctrine that the lord had to respect the rights of
of the kingdom, he would willingly grant them the laws his vassals and rule according to good custom was the
and liberties they required . . . Accordingly, at the time constitutional principle of government under the law.
and place pre-agreed on, the king and nobles came to the In striving to make John a good feudal lord, the barons
appointed conference, and when each party had stationed in 1215 were moving uncertainly toward constitutional
themselves apart from the other, they began a long discus- monarchy. Thus Magna Carta expresses the notion that
sion about terms of peace and the aforesaid liberties. . . . the king is bound by traditional legal constraints in his
At length, after various points on both sides had been dis- dealings with all classes of free English people.
cussed, king John, seeing that he was inferior in strength
to the barons, without raising any difficulty, granted the
underwritten laws and liberties, and confirmed them by
his charter.

A?BBI
 READING LIKE A HISTORIAN
D OCUMENT 1 D OCUMENT 4
a. Identify To what people do the agreements described in a. Identify According to Hollister, what was the main goal of
Magna Carta apply? the framers of Magna Carta?
b. Infer What kinds of problems do you think were going on b. Explain Why does Hollister describe Magna Carta as a
in England that led to the writing of Magna Carta? feudal document?
D OCUMENT 2
a. Describe What groups of people does the artist represent
as present at the signing of Magna Carta? Magna Carta has been referred to as a document that sim-
b. Analyze How does the artist portray King John’s emotions ply defined the relationship of lord and vassal. It has also
at the signing of Magna Carta? Why would the king have been referred to as a great step toward democratic govern-
felt that way? ment. Which interpretation is correct? Or are both valid?
D OCUMENT 3 Using the documents and information from the chapter,
form a thesis to support your interpretation of Magna
a. Identify Main Ideas According to Roger of Wendover, Carta. Then write a short essay to support your position.
why did King John agree to sign Magna Carta?
b. Analyze What circumstances might affect the accuracy of See Skills Handbook, p. H25
Roger of Wendover’s account?

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 397

 CHAPTER

13 Chapter Review
VISUAL STUDY GUIDE

Political Changes in the Early Middle Ages

Charlemagne and the Frankish Empire Monarchies Grow and Change
• Charles Martel leads the Franks to victory at the Battle • William the Conqueror takes England by force and
of Tours increases the power of the king
• Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne Emperor of the • Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine rule all of England
Romans and about half of France
• Charlemagne unites much of Western Europe into a • Magna Carta limits the English monarchy
Christian empire • Hugh Capet extends the French monarchy
• Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invasions and migrations • Otto the Great starts the Holy Roman Empire
bring change to the Frankish Empire • Christian monarchies in Spain and Portugal unite to
• After Charlemagne, the Frankish Empire declined drive out the Moors

The Church in the Feudalism

Early Middle Ages
Lords Vassals
Everyday Life • Provide fief, or land • Provide military
• Church officials serve as teachers and record • Offer protection service
keepers • Resolve disputes • Remain loyal and
• Religious ceremonies important to everyday life between knights faithful
• Christianity unifies most parts of western Europe • Give money on
special occasions
Popes Gain Power
• Replace corrupt bishops
• Threaten to excommunicate
• Raise armies Manoralism
• Call kings and nobles to council
• Rule the Papal States Lords Peasants
• Own manors • Live on the lord’s
Monasteries Change • Provide protection land
• Wealthy monasteries spark reform from attacks • Give a portion of
• Benedictine Rule regains followers • Provide land for their crops to the
• New, stricter, orders form farming manor lord
• Monks retreat from politics • Farm the lord’s land

Review Key Terms and People 5. emperor of the Frankish Empire

Identify the term or person from the chapter that best 6. workers who were legally tied to the manor on
fits each of the following descriptions. which they worked
1. planning a course across the sea 7. the land given to a knight for his service
2. the system of exchanging land for service 8. an economic system built around large estates
3. duke of Normandy who fought in the Battle of 9. governing body that still makes England’s laws
Hastings and became king of England 10. a person’s level of devotion to his or her religion
4. to unite or work into something that already exists 11. Icelandic stories about great heroes and events

398 CHAPTER 13
 History's Impact video program
Review the video to answer the closing question: How has
life in Europe change since the decline of feudalism?

Comprehension and Critical Thinking Analyzing Points of View

SECTION 1 (pp. 373–376) Reading Like a Historian The selection below was
written by English historians in 1963.
12. a. Describe How did Charlemagne rise to power?
b. Explain How did the changes Charlemagne “not
For half a century or so from 1066 the English way of life was
sensibly altered [changed]. The Normans had very little
made to education strengthen his empire?
to teach, even in the art of war, and they had very much to
SECTION 2 (pp. 378–381) learn. They were barbarians who were becoming conscious
13. a. Recall Where did the Magyars come from? ”
of their insufficiency.
—H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles, The
b. Explain Why did the Vikings go on raids Governance of Medieval England
throughout Europe?
c. Draw Conclusions What effects do you think 20. Identify What main point of view do the histori-
Viking raids might have had on Europe? ans express about the Norman conquest of Eng-
land in the selection?
SECTION 3 (pp. 382–386)
21. Analyze How might the information provided
14. a. Identify Main Ideas What were the main obliga- about the authors help explain the authors’ point
tions of lords and vassals in the feudal system? of view?
b. Compare and Contrast What was one similarity 22. Elaborate What details do the authors use to sup-
and one difference between the feudal system and port their point of view? What details from the
the manorial system? chapter provide an alternative point of view of the
c. Make Judgments Do you think peasants were influence of the Normans in England?
fortunate or unfortunate to be part of the manorial
[Link]
system? Explain your answer.
Using the Internet Practice Online
SECTION 4 (pp. 387–391) Keyword: SHL EMA
23. During the Middle Ages,
15. a. Recall What was the Reconquista? daily life differed greatly for nobles and peasants.
b. Analyze Why did French culture flourish in Using the keyword above, do research to learn
England after 1066? more about the daily life of either peasants or
c. Elaborate How did Parliament strengthen the nobles. Then create a poster illustrating the dif-
reforms made in Magna Carta? ferent aspects of the daily life experienced by the
group you choose.
SECTION 5 (pp. 392–395)
16. a. Identify Main Ideas Why did popes have so
much power in medieval Europe? WRITING FOR THE SAT
b. Summarize What issues were at the root of the Think about the following issue:
conflict over selection of clergy?
Charlemagne greatly expanded his empire
c. Make Judgments Who do you think should have
through conquest. He also made sweeping
appointed bishops in the Middle Ages, the pope or
changes to Frankish society. Through his roles
the emperor?
as both a warrior and a political leader, he cre-
ated one of the largest and strongest kingdoms
Reading Skills of the Early Middle Ages.
Understanding Word Origins Using a dictionary,
24. Assignment Which were more important to the
find the origins of the following words and explain how
creation of a strong empire—Charlemagne’s con-
the origin of each relates to the use of the word in the
quests or his social reforms? Write a short essay
chapter.
in which you develop your position on this issue.
17. monastery
Support your point of view with reasoning and
18. fealty examples from your reading and studies.
19. navigation

THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 399