Republic of the Philippines

PALAWAN POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE INCORPORATED

Region IV-B MiMaRoPa
Manalo Extension, Barangay Milagrosa Puerto Princesa City

Basic Electronics

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling operations that can be
expressed either in logical or numerical terms.

Applications
The applications domain of a computer depends totally on human creativity and imagination it covers a huge area of
applications including education, industries, government medicine, scientific research, low and even music and arts.
• Millions of complex calculations can be done in a mere fraction of time
• Difficult decisions can be made with unerring accuracy for comparatively little cost

1.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

Speed
Computer process data at an extremely fast rate – millions of instructions per second in few seconds, a computer can
perform a huge task that a normal human being may take days or even years to complete. The speed of a computer is
calculated in Mhz
Accuracy
Besides efficiency, computer are accurate as well. The level of accuracy depends in the instructions and the type of
machine being used.
Diligence
Computer being a machine does not suffer form the human trailts of tiredness and lack of concentration
Reliability
Reliability is the measurement of performance of a computer, which is measured against some predetermined standard
for operation without any failure.
Storage capability
The main memory of the computer is relatively small and it can hold only a certain amount of information, therefore,
the data is stored on secondary storage devices such as magnetic tape or disks.
Versatility
It can perform multiple taks simultaneously with great ease. For example, at one moment it can be used to draft a
letter, another moment it can be used to play music an in between, one can print a document as well. All this work is
possible by changing the program.
Resource sharing
It made the sharing of costly resources like printer possible. Apart from device sharing data and information can also be
shared among group of computers, thus creating a large information and knowledge base.

This module, created by Engr. Sherwin Dave M. Suaco, is intended solely for educational use within its designated audience. All content, materials, and intellectual
property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws.
1.1.3 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
• In the beginning, when the task was simply counting or adding, people used either their Fingers or pebbles along
lines in the sand. In order to simplify the process of counting, people in Asia Minor built a counting device called
abacus. This device allowed users to do calculations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack.
• With the passage of time, many computing devices such as Napier bones and slide rule were invented.
• In 1642, a French mathematician, Blaise Pascal invented the first functional automatic calculator. This brass
rectangular box, also called a Pascaline, used eight movable dios to adds sums eight figures long.
• In 1694, german mathematician Gottfried wilhem von Leibniz extended pascal’s design to perform multiplication,
division and to find square root. This machine is known as Stepped Reckoner.
• The real beginnings of computers as we know them today, however, lay with an English mathematics professor,
Charles Babbage. In 1822, he proposed a machine to perform differential equations, called a Difference Engine.
• In 1889, Herman Hollerith, who worked for us census bureau, also applied the Jacquard loom concept to computing.
Hollerith’s method used cards to store data, which he fed into a machine that compelled the results mechanically.
• Mark I, which was built as a partnership between Harvard Aiken and IBM in 1944. This electronic calculating machine
used relays and electromagnetic components to replace mechanical components.
• In 1946, John Eclcert and John Mauchy of developed ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator and calculator) Thus
computer used electronic vacuum tubes to make internal parts of the computer
• Eckert and mauchy also proposed the development of EDVAC ( electronic discrete variable automatic computer. It
was the first electronic computer to use the stored program concept introduced by John von Neumann.
• In 1949, at the Cambridge university, Maurice wilkes developed EDSAC (electronic delay storage automatic
calculator) This machine used mercury delay lines for memory and vacuum tubes for logic.
• The Eckert – mauchy corporation manufactured UNIVAC ( universal automatic computer) in 1951 and its
implementation marked the real beginning of the computer era.

1.1.4 COMPUTER GENERATIONS

[Link] First Generation (1940-56) : Vacuum Tube
First generation computer were vacuum tubes/thermionic value based machines these computers used vacuum tubes
for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
A magnetic drum is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and programs can be
stored. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape and output was in the form of printouts.
For example: ENIAC, EDVAC AND UNIVAC.

Characteristics of First Generation Computers.

• These computers were based on vacuum tube technology.
• These were the fastest computing devices of their time.
• These computers were very large, and required a lot of space
for installation.
• These were non-portable and very slow equipments.

This module, created by Engr. Sherwin Dave M. Suaco, is intended solely for educational use within its designated audience. All content, materials, and intellectual
property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws
[Link] Second Generations (1956-63): Transistors
A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon. It usually had three leads and performed
electrical functions such as voltage, current or power amplification with low power requirement. Since transistor is a
small device, the physical size of computers was greatly reduced. Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-
efficient and more reliable than their predecessors.
Magnetic cores- were used as primary memory and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. However, they still
relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
For example: PDP – 8 , IBM 1401 and IBM 7090

Characterstics of Second Generation Computer.

• These machines were based on transistor technology
• These were smaller as compared to the first-generation
computers.
• These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.

[Link] Third Generation (1964 – Early 1970), Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third generation computer. Also called an ic, an
integrated circuit consists of a single chip with many components such as transistors and resistors fabricated on it.
Integrated circuit replaced several individually wired transistor. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable and efficient. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with operating system.
For example : NCR 395 and B6500

Characteristic of Third Generation Computer

• These computers were based on integrated circuit (ic) technology.
• They were able to reduce computational time from micro seconds to
nano seconds.
• Extensive use of high – level language became possible

[Link] Fourth Generation (Early (1970 – Till Date) Microprocessors)

The technology of this generation was still based on the intergrated circuit,
these have been made readily available to use because of the development
of the microprocessor.
The fourth generation computers led to an era of large scale integration
(LSI) and very large scale integration (vlsi) technology. LSI technology
allowed thousands of transistors to be constructed on one small slice of
silicon material whereas vlsi squeezed hundreds of thousands of
components on to a single ewp.

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property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws
ULTRA – large scale integration (ULSI) increased that number into millions the fourth generation computer became
more powerful compact, reliable and affordable.
For example: apple ii, attair 8800 and CRAY-1
Introduction to Computers 1.5
Characteristics of Fourth Generation Computers
• Fourth generation computers are microprocessor based systems
• These computers are very small
• GUI an d pointing devices enable users to learn to use the computer quickly
• Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource sharing

[Link] Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence

A computer would learn from its mistakes and possess the skill of experts the starting point for the fifth generation of
computers has been set in the early 1990. The expert system it defined as a computer information system that
attempts to mimic the thought process and reasoning of experts in specific areas three characteristics can be identified
with the fifth generation computer these are.
Mega chips : Fifth generation computers will use super large scale integrated (SLSI) chips, which will
result in the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic components on a single chip
Parallel processing: A computer using parallel processing accesses several instructions at once and works on
them at the same time through use of multiple central processing units.
Artificial intelligence: (AI): AI comprises a group of related technologies expert systems (ES), natural language
processing (NLP) speech recognition, vision recognition and robotics.

1.1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Micro computers: A micro computer is a small, low cost digital computer, which usually consists of a microprocessor, a
storage unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of which may be on one chip inserted into are or several pc
boards.
IBM – pc,Pentium 100, ibm-pc Pentium 200 and Apple Macintosh are some of the example
of micro computers
Micro computers include desktop, laptop and hand – held models such as PDAS (personal) digital assistants.

This module, created by Engr. Sherwin Dave M. Suaco, is intended solely for educational use within its designated audience. All content, materials, and intellectual
property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws
Desktop computer: also known as personal computer (pc) is principally intended per stand alone use by an individual
micro computer typically consist of a system unit a display monitor, a keyboard internal hard disk storage and other
peripheral devices. Some of the major personal computer manufactures are Apple, IBM, Dell and Hewlett Packard.
Laptop: A laptop is a portable computer that is a user can carry it around. Laptops are small computer enclosing all the
basic features of a normal desktop computer.
The biggest advantage of this computer is that one can use this computer anywhere and at anytime, especially when
are is travelling.
Hand held computers: also called personal digital assistant (PDA), is a computer that can conveniently be stored in a
pocket and used while the user is holding it. PDAs are essentially small portable computers and are slightly bigger than
the common calculators.
Some example of PDAs are Apple Newton, Casio Cassiopeia and Franklin ebook man
Mini computers: The mini computer is a small digital computer whose process and storage capacity is lesser than that
of a mainframe, but more than that of micro computer. Its speed of processing data is in between that of a mainframe
and a micro computes, generally, it is used as desktop device that is often connected to a mainframe in order to
perform the auxiliaxy operations.
Mini computers are usually multi-user systems, so these are used in interactive applications in industries, research
organisations colleges and universities.
High – performance workstations with graphics I/o capability use mini computers
Some of the widely used mini computers are PDP II, IBM (8000 series) and VAX 7500.
Mainframe computer: A mainframe is an ultra – high performance computer made for high – volume, processor –
intensive computing. It consists of a high end computer processor, with related peripheral devices, capable of
supporting large volumes of data processing systems and extensive data storage and retrieval.
Mainframes are the second largest of the computer family, the largest being super computers.
Mainframe allows its user to maintain large information storage at a conrralised location and be able to access and
process this data from different computers located at different locations It is typically used by large businesses and for
scientific purpose.
Examples of mainframe computers are IBM’s E5000, VAX8000 and CDC6600.
Super computers: Super computers are the special purpose machine, which are specially designed to maximise the
numbers of FLOPS (floating point operation per second).
Any computer below one gigaflop/sec is not considered a super computer. A super computer has the highest
processing speed at a given time for solving scientific and engineering problems. Essentially, it contains a number of
cpu, that operate in parallel to make it faster. Its processing speed lies in the range of 400 – 10,000 MF LOP’s (millions
of floating point operation per second).
Super computers are used to solve multivariant mathematical problems of existent physical processes, such as
aerodynamics, metrologis, and plasms physics.
The largest commercial use of super computers is in the entertainment advertising industry,
CRAY – 3, Cyber 205 and PARAM are some well known super computers.

This module, created by Engr. Sherwin Dave M. Suaco, is intended solely for educational use within its designated audience. All content, materials, and intellectual
property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws
1.1.7 NUMBER SYSTEMS
Introduction
A number is required for counting or to express the amount of some quantity it consists of a group of symbols called
digits, which are arranged in a definite manner. There can be many ways in which the digits can be arranged to form a
number. This gives rise to what we call a number system.
The decimal number system which has ten digits (0, 1, 2,……9), the octal system has eight digits (0,1,2,….7) the
hexadecimal system has sixteen digits (0,1,2,…..9,a,b,c,d,e,f), the binary number system has only two (0,1)
The number of digits in a system is called radix or base. Thus the decimal system may be called as radix-10 system, the
binary system as radix – 2, system.
The number system are basically two types
(i) Non – positioning number system
(ii) Positioning number system.

(i) Non –positional number system

Using this system, the symbols i.e, I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII for 4, iiiii for 5 etc, are used Introduction to Computers
1.11 In non-positioning number system each symbol represents the same values regardless of its position in the
number. The symbols are simply added to find out the value of a particular number.
(ii) Positional number system
The positional number user only few symbol called digits
Example: The decimal number 3977.39(10)

The following four positional number system are commonly used.

(1) Decimal number system
(2) Binary number system
(3) Octal number system
(4) Hexadecimal system

(1) Decimal number system

In this number system the base or radix is 10 and there are altogether ten number i.e, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. A number in a
radix system would be written as (an

This module, created by Engr. Sherwin Dave M. Suaco, is intended solely for educational use within its designated audience. All content, materials, and intellectual
property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws
Example:
In decimal number system 3967(10) or 3967 Consists the digits
7 in the unit position (7×100)

6 in the unit position (6×101)

9 in the unit position (9×102)

3 in the unit position (3×103)

It values can be written as

3×103+9×102+6×101+7×100

3×1000+9×100+6×10+7×1

3000+900+60+7

3967

3967(10) = 3967

(2) Binary number system

The binary system user only two digits i.e, 0’s and 1’s the base or radis of binary number system is 2 because it contains
only two numbers.
User
• The circuits in computer have to handled by two binary digits or bits rather than decimal number
• The computer only identifies signals in the form of digital pulses, which represent either high or low voltage.
• Everything that can be alone with decimal numbers can also be done using binary
numbers.
Example:
Convert the binary number 100111(2) to decimal numbers.

This module, created by Engr. Sherwin Dave M. Suaco, is intended solely for educational use within its designated audience. All content, materials, and intellectual
property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws
(3) Octal number system
The number system with base or radix digit (8) is known as octal number system. There are only eight digits is i.e.
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 Each position in this number system represents a power of the base(8).

(4) Hexadecimal number system

The base 16 suggests choices of 16 single character digits or symbol. The first 10 digits are digits of decimal system (0 to
9) and the remaining 6 digits are denoted by (A to F) representing decimal value (10 to 15) where:
a = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E=14 and F = 16. The largest single digit is F or 15 ( one less that the base).
Since number (0 to 9) and alphabets (A to F) are used to represent the digit in hexadecimal numbers system, it is also
called the alphanumeric number systems.

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property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws
Now its your turn !!

A. Convert the Decimal Number System (to Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal)

1. 25₁₀ →
2. 45₁₀ →
3. 63₁₀ →
4. 100₁₀ →
5. 78₁₀ →
6. 255₁₀ →
7. 32₁₀ →
8. 90₁₀ →
9. 150₁₀ →
10. 200₁₀ →

B. Convert Binary to Decimal

1. 1010₂ →
2. 1111₂ →
3. 1001₂ →
4. 11001₂ →
5. 101101₂ →
6. 111111₂ →
7. 100000₂ →
8. 1100100₂ →
9. 1001110₂ →
10. 11111111₂ →

C. Convert Octal to decimal

1. 10₈ →
2. 17₈ →
3. 25₈ →
4. 31₈ →
5. 55₈ →
6. 77₈ →
7. 144₈ →
8. 116₈ →
9. 226₈ →
10. 310₈ →

D. Convert Hexadecimal to Decimal

1. A₁₆ →
2. F₁₆ →
3. 19₁₆ →
4. 2D₁₆ →
5. 3F₁₆ →
6. 64₁₆ →
7. 4E₁₆ →
8. FF₁₆ →
9. 96₁₆ →
10. C8₁₆ →

This module, created by Engr. Sherwin Dave M. Suaco, is intended solely for educational use within its designated audience. All content, materials, and intellectual
property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws
This module, created by Engr. Sherwin Dave M. Suaco, is intended solely for educational use within its designated audience. All content, materials, and intellectual
property contained herein are the exclusive work of the author and are protected under applicable copyright laws