Global Media Cultures

4.1 Global Media

The role of the mass media in the globalization of
Cultures culture is a contested issue in international communication
OVERVIEW theory and research. Early theories of media influence,
commonly referred to as "magic bullet" or "hypodermic
needle" theories, believed that the mass media had
The received view about the globalization of powerful effects over audiences. Since then, the debate
culture is one where the entire world has been molded in about media influence has undergone an ebb and flow that
the image of Western, mainly American, culture. In popular has prevented any resolution or agreement among
and professional discourses alike, the popularity of Big researchers as to the level, scope, and implications of media
Macs, Baywatch, and MTV are touted as unmistakable signs influence. Nevertheless, key theoretical formulations in
of the fulfillment of Marshall McLuhan's prophecy of the international communication clung to a belief in powerful
Global Village. The globalization of culture is often chiefly media effects on cultures and communities. At the same
imputed to international mass media. After all, time, a body of literature questioning the scope and level of
contemporary media technologies such as satellite influence of transnational media has emerged. Whereas
television and the Internet have created a steady flow of some scholars within that tradition questioned cultural
transnational images that connect audiences worldwide. imperialism without providing conceptual alternatives,
Without global media, according to the conventional others have drawn on an interdisciplinary literature from
wisdom, how would teenagers in India, Turkey, and across the social sciences and humanities to develop
Argentina embrace a Western lifestyle of Nike shoes, Coca- theoretical alternatives to cultural imperialism.
Cola, and rock music? Hence, the putatively strong influence
of the mass media on the globalization of culture. Cultural Imperialism and the Global Media Debate

In international communication theory and

LEARNING OUTCOMES research, cultural imperialism theory argued that audiences
across the globe are heavily affected by media messages
Specifically, after learning the module, you are expected to: emanating from the Western industrialized countries.
Although there are minor differences between "media
imperialism" and "cultural imperialism," most of the
 Discuss the role of the mass media in the literature in international communication treats the former
globalization of culture. as a category of the latter. Grounded in an understanding of
 Explain how various media drive various forms of media as cultural industries, cultural imperialism is firmly
globalization. rooted in a political-economy perspective on international
 Explain the dynamics between local and global communication. As a school of thought, political economy
cultural production. focuses on material issues such as capital, infrastructure,
and political control as key determinants of international
Learning Task communication processes and effects.
A Research: Cultural Globalization vs. Cultural
In the early stage of cultural imperialism,
Imperialism
researchers focused their efforts mostly on nation-states as
primary actors in international relations. They imputed
Use the Internet to compare and contrast cultural
rich, industrialized, and Western nation-states with
globalization and cultural imperialism.
intentions and actions by which they export their cultural
products and impose their sociocultural values on poorer
and weaker nations in the developing world. This argument
was supported by a number of studies demonstrating that
the flow of news and entertainment was biased in favor of
industrialized countries. This bias was clear both in terms
of quantity, because most media flows were exported by
Western countries and imported by developing nations, and
in terms of quality, because developing nations received
scant and prejudicial coverage in Western media.

These concerns led to the rise of the New World

Information Order (NWIO) debate, later known as the New
World Information and Communication Order (NWICO)
debate. Although the debate at first was concerned with
news flows between the north and the south, it soon
evolved to include all international media flows. This was
due to the fact that inequality existed in news and
entertainment programs alike, and to the advent of then-
new media technologies such as communication satellites,
which made the international media landscape more
complex and therefore widened the scope of the debate
about international flows.
Cultural Cultural
globalization Imperialism
1
 The global media debate was launched during the world. Finally, globalization has emerged as a key
1973 General Conference of the United Nations perspective across the humanities and social sciences, a
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) current undoubtedly affecting the discipline of
in Nairobi, Kenya. As a specialized agency of the United communication.
Nations, the mission of UNESCO includes issues of
communication and culture. During the conference, strong In fact, the globalization of culture has become a
differences arose between Western industrialized nations conceptual magnet attracting research and theorizing
and developing countries. Led by the United States, the first efforts from a variety of disciplines and interdisciplinary
group insisted on the "free flow of information" doctrine, formations such as anthropology, comparative literature,
advocating "free trade" in information and media programs cultural studies, communication and media studies,
without any restrictions. The second group, concerned by geography, and sociology. International communication has
the lack of balance in international media flows, accused been an active interlocutor in this debate because media
Western countries of invoking the free flow of information and information technologies play an important role in the
ideology to justify their economic and cultural domination. process of globalization. Although the media are undeniably
They argued instead ·for a "free and balanced flow" of one of the engines of cultural globalization, the size and
information. The chasm between the two groups was too intensity of the effect of the media on the globalization of
wide to be reconciled. This eventually was one of the major culture is a contested issue revolving around the following
reasons given for withdrawal from UNESCO by the United question: Did the mass media trigger and create the
States and the United Kingdom-which resulted in the de globalization of culture? Or is the globalization of culture an
facto fall of the global media debate. old phenomenon that has only been intensified and made
more obvious with the advent of transnational media
A second stage of research identified with cultural technologies? Like the age-old question about whether the
imperialism has been associated with calls to revive the egg came before the chicken or vice versa, the question
New World Information and Communication Order debate. about the relationship between media and the globalization
What differentiates this line of research from earlier of culture is difficult to answer.
cultural imperialism formulations is its emphasis on the
commercialization of the sphere of culture. Research into One perspective on the globalization of culture,
this area had been a hallmark of cultural imperialism somewhat reminiscent of cultural imperialism in terms of
research, but now there is a deliberate focus on the nature of the effect of media on culture, but somewhat
transnational corporations as actors, as opposed to nation- different in its conceptualization of the issue, is the view
states, and on transnational capital flows, as opposed to that the media contribute to the homogenization of cultural
image flows. Obviously, it is hard to separate the power of differences across the planet. This view dominates
transnational corporations from that of nation-states, and it conventional wisdom perspectives on cultural globalization
is difficult to distinguish clearly between capital flows and conjuring up images of Planet Hollywood and the MTV
media flows. Therefore, the evolution of the debate is generation. One of the most visible proponents of this
mainly a redirection of emphasis rather than a paradigm perspective is political scientist Benjamin Barber, who
shift. formulated his theory about the globalization of culture in
the book Jihad vs. McWorld (1996). The subtitle, "How
It has become fashionable in some international Globalism and Tribalism Are Reshaping the World," betrays
communication circles to dismiss cultural imperialism as a Barber's reliance on a binary opposition between the forces
monolithic theory that is lacking subtlety and increasingly of modernity and liberal democracy with tradition and
questioned by empirical research. Cultural imperialism autocracy.
does have some weaknesses, but it also continues to be
useful. Perhaps the most important contribution of cultural Although Barber rightly points to transnational
imperialism is the argument that international capitalism as the driving engine that brings Jihad and
communication flows, processes, and effects are permeated McWorld in contact and motivates their action, his model
by power. Nevertheless, it seems that the concept of has two limitations. First, it is based on a binary opposition
globalization has in some ways replaced cultural between Jihad, what he refers to as ethnic and religious
imperialism as the main conceptual umbrella under which tribalism, and McWorld, the capital-driven West. Barber
much research and theorizing in international (1996, p. 157) seemingly attempts to go beyond this binary
communication have been conducted. opposition in a chapter titled “Jihad Via McWorld," in which
he argues that Jihad stands in "less of a stark opposition
Media, Globalization, and Hybridization than a subtle counterpoint." However, the evidence offered
in most of the book supports an oppositional rather than a
Several reasons explain the analytical shift from contrapuntal perspective on the globalization of culture.
cultural imperialism to globalization. First, the end of the The second limitation of Barber's book is that he privileges
Cold War as a global framework for ideological, geopolitical, the global over the local, because, according to him,
and economic competition calls for a rethinking of the globalization rules via transnational capitalism. "[T]o think
analytical categories and paradigms of thought. By giving that globalization and indigenization are entirely coequal
rise to the United States as sole superpower and at the forces that put Jihad and McWorld on an equal footing is to
same time making the world more fragmented, the end of vastly underestimate the force of the new planetary
the Cold War ushered in an era of complexity between markets .... It's no contest" (p. 12). Although it would be
global forces of cohesion and local reactions of dispersal. In naive to argue that the local defeats the global, Barber's
this complex era, the nation-state is no longer the sale or argument does not take into account the dynamic and
dominant player, since transnational transactions occur on resilient nature of cultures and their ability to negotiate
subnational, national, and supranational levels. foreign imports.
Conceptually, globalization appears to capture this
complexity better than cultural imperialism. Second, Another perspective on globalization is cultural
according to John Tomlinson (1991), globalization replaced hybridity or hybridization. This view privileges an
cultural imperialism because it conveys a process with less understanding of the interface of globalization and
coherence and direction, which will weaken the cultural localization as a dynamic process and hybrid product of
unity of all nation-states, not only those in the developing mixed traditions and cultural forms. As such, this

2
perspective does not give prominence to globalization as a Thesis Statement
homogenizing force, nor does it believe in localization as a
resistive process opposed to globalization. Rather,
hybridization advocates an emphasis on processes of
mediation that it views as central to cultural globalization. Part 1 (explanation and details)
The concept of hybridization is the product of
interdisciplinary work mostly based in intellectual projects
such as postcolonialism, cultural studies, and performance
studies. Hybridization has been used in communication and
media studies and appears to be a productive theoretical Part 2 (explanation and details)
orientation as researchers in international media studies
attempt to grasp the complex subtleties of the globalization
of culture.

One of the most influential voices in the debate

about cultural hybridity is Argentinean-Mexican cultural Part 3 (explanation and details)
critic Nestor Garcia-Candini. In his book Hybrid Cultures
(1995), Garcia-Candini advocates a theoretical
understanding of Latin American nations as hybrid
cultures. His analysis is both broad and incisive, covering a
variety of cultural processes and institutions such as
Part 4 (explanation and details)
museums, television, film, universities, political cartoons,
graffiti, and visual arts. According to Garcia-Candini, there
are three main features of cultural hybridity. The first
feature consists of mixing previously separate cultural
systems, such as mixing the elite art of opera with popular
music. The second feature of hybridity is the Conclusion
deterritorialization of cultural processes from their original
physical environment to new and foreign contexts. Third,
cultural hybridity entails impure cultural genres that are
formed out of the mixture of several cultural domains. An
example of these impure genres is when artisans in rural
Mexico weave tapestries of masterpieces of European
painters such as Joan Miro and Henri Matisse, mixing high
art and folk artisanship into an impure genre.

In media and communication research, the main Concept Check

question is "Have transnational media made cultures across
the globe hybrid by bringing into their midst foreign Quiz: Political Cartoon
cultural elements, or have cultures always been to some
extent hybrid, meaning that transnational mass media only Direction: Explain the theme of this political
strengthened an already-existing condition?" There is no cartoon in exactly 140 words.
obvious or final answer to that question, because there is
not enough empirical research about media and hybridity
and because of the theoretical complexity of the issue. What
does exist in terms of theoretical understanding and
research results points to a middle ground? This position
acknowledges that cultures have been in contact for a long
time through warfare, trade, migration, and slavery.
Therefore, a degree of hybridization in all cultures can be
assumed. At the same time, this middle ground also
recognizes that global media and information technologies
have substantially increased contacts between cultures,
both in terms of intensity and of the speed with which these
contacts occur. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that
transnational mass media intensify the hybridity that is
already in existence in cultures across the globe.
Consequently, the globalization of culture through the
media is not a process of complete homogenization, but
rather one where cohesion and fragmentation coexist.
(Kraidy 2002)

Activity: Essay Analysis Chart

Apply this chart to Marwan M. Kraidy’s

“Globalization of Culture through Media”. Check your
understanding of this essay by filling in the chart below.
Use a separate sheet of paper if necessary.

Introduction (identify the work)

3
 The Globalization
4.2
of Religion
OVERVIEW

Over the last decade, the issue of regionalism has

SUMMARY once again "been brought back in", albeit in a different form
The North–South divide (or Global compared to the debate on regional integration some three
North and Global South) is a socio- decades ago. Thus, I shall argue that we are dealing with a
economic and political division of Earth popularized in the "new" regionalism. I shall also argue that this regionalism
late 20th century and early 21st century. Generally, can be seen as a response to the process of globalization
definitions of the Global North is not exclusively and the social eruptions associated with this process. The
a geographical term, and it includes places such second part of the paper applies the framework to the case
as Australia, Canada, the European of East Asia. As a contested term, globalization has many
Union, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, South definitions, each worthy of merit. Generally, globalization is
Korea, Taiwan (ROC), the United Kingdom, and the United first thought of “in economic and political terms, as a
States. The Global South is made up of Africa, Latin America movement of capitalism spreading across the globe.” It calls
and the Caribbean, Pacific Islands, and the developing to mind “homogenizing exports of the US” such as Nike,
countries in Asia, including the Middle East. It is generally McDonald’s, and MTV. However, since globalization can be
seen as home to: Brazil, India and China, which, along defined as a process of an “ever more interdependent
with Indonesia and Mexico, are the largest Southern states world” where “political, economic, social, and cultural
in terms of land area and population. relationships are not restricted to territorial boundaries or
to state actors,” globalization has much do with its impact
The North is mostly correlated with the Western world, on cultures.
while the South largely corresponds with the developing
countries (previously called "Third World") and Eastern As goods and finance crisscross across the globe,
world. The two groups are often defined in terms of their globalization shifts the cultural makeup of the globe and
differing levels of wealth, economic development, income creates a homogenized “global culture.” Although not a new
inequality, democracy, and political and economic freedom, phenomenon, the process of globalization has truly made
as defined by freedom indices. States that are generally the world a smaller place in which political, social, and
seen as part of the Global North tend to be wealthier, less economic events elsewhere affect individuals anywhere. As
unequal and considered more democratic and to a result, individuals “search for constant time and space-
be developed countries who export technologically bounded identities” in a world ever changing by the day.
advanced manufactured products; Southern states are One such identity is religion.
generally poorer developing countries with younger, more
fragile democracies heavily dependent on primary
sector exports and frequently share a history of LEARNING OUTCOMES
past colonialism by Northern states.[1] Nevertheless, the
 Discuss how globalization has helped to spread
divide between the North and the South is often challenged
religion.
and said to be increasingly incompatible with reality.[2]
 Explain how globalization affects religious
In economic terms, as of the early 21st century, the North— paractices and beliefs.
with one quarter of the world population—controls four-  Analyze the relationship between religion and
fifths of the income earned anywhere in the world. 90% of global conflict, and conversely, global peace
the manufacturing industries are owned by and located in
the North.[1] Inversely, the South—with three quarters of Learning Task
the world population—has access to one-fifth of the world
income. As nations become economically developed, they
may become part of definitions the "North", regardless of Activity: Film Review
geographical location; similarly, any nations that do not Whether a movie is a rotten tomato or a brilliant
qualify for "developed" status are in effect deemed to be work of art, if people are watching it, it’s worth critiquing. A
part of the "South" good movie review should entertain, persuade and inform,
providing an original opinion without giving away too
much of the plot. A great movie review can be a work of art
in its own right. Fill in the chart below to write your film
review about PBS Frontline’s “The Rise of ISIS”.

Contents of the Film Title of your Film Review

Review
BACKGROUND

The title of the film is…

This fascinating film
is...
The film is directed
by…
The film is produced

4
by… contested and changed at the same time.” Hence, “in order
The film is set in… for a person to maintain a sense of psychological well-being
This film is based on… and avoid existential anxiety,” individuals turn to scripture
The genre of the film stories and teachings that provide a vision about how they
is… can be bound to a “meaningful world,” a world that is
MAIN POINTS OF THE PLOT quickly changing day-by-day.

The plot focuses on… Nonetheless, the relationship between

The plot revolves globalization and religion is one with new possibilities and
around… furthering challenges. On the one hand, while religion takes
The story concerns advantage of communication and transportation
about… technology, it is at the same time the source of
The story has a twist globalization’s greatest resistance by acting as a haven for
in… those standing in opposition to its power. On the other
The reaches a climax hand, because globalization allows for daily contact,
when… religion enters a circle of conflict in which religions become
The story / plot is “more self-conscious of themselves as being world
absolutely… religions.” This essay argues that the relationship between
GENERAL COMMENTS AND OPINIONS religion and globalization is complex, one with new
possibilities and furthering challenges. However, this essay
The cast is… cannot provide a comprehensive overview of religion and
The script / story is… globalization, as the terrain is too vast. Still, it does provide
The ending of the film several examples to illustrate the complex relationship
is… between the two.
The music is… First, this essay explains how globalization
The props / special engenders greater religious tolerance across areas such as
effects are… politics, economics, and society. Second, it explains that as
The acting is… globalization does so, it also disrupts traditional
The pacing is… communities, causes economic marginalization, and brings
The cinematography individuals mental stress, all of which create a backlash of
is… religious parochialism. Third, although globalization paves
Over all, the film is… the way in bringing cultures, identities, and religions in
direct contact, this essay also explains that globalization
RECOMMENDATIONS brings religions to a circle of conflicts that reinforces their
specific identities. Finally, using three paradigmatic
Don’t miss it! individuals and their use of religious ideals in their human
It is well worth seeing! rights work, this essay provides some suggestions on how
I highly recommend not just religions but humanity can use existing religious
this film! principles as ways to overlook religious and cultural
It will change the way differences.
you see… after
watching this film. Globalization Engendering Greater Religious Tolerance
Fans of… will no doubt
be thrilled by this. Globalization brings a culture of pluralism,
I would not meaning religions “with overlapping but distinctive ethics
recommend this film and interests” interact with one another. Essentially, the
because… world’s leading religious traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism,
It’s a boring movie. Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—teach values such as
Don’t bother with this human dignity, equality, freedom, peace, and solidarity.
one. More specifically, religions maintain the Golden Rule: “what
Only watch this film if you do not wish done to yourself, do not do to others.”
you have plenty of time Therefore, through such religious values, globalization
to spare. engenders greater religious tolerance in such areas as
politics, economics, and society.

In political areas, globalization has built global

political forums that integrate cultural, ethnic, and religious
differences—ideologies that were once perceived as
dividing the world—through a large number of
international organizations such as the United Nations (UN)
and the World Health Organization (WHO), as well regional
The Globalization of organizations like the European Union (EU), the
Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), or the African
Union (AU). When discussing issues such as international
Religion peace and security, health issues, poverty, and
environment, these organizations generally share many of
Generally, religion is a “system of beliefs and the same basic commitments as religious traditions—
practices.” More specifically, the word comes from the Latin mainly peace, human dignity, and human equality, as well
“religare” which means “to bind together again that which as conflict resolution in which they actively engage in
was once bound but has since been torn apart or broken.” negotiation, mediation, and diplomacy.
Indeed, with the globalization of economics and politics,
individuals feel insecure “as the life they once led is being

5
 In addition to these political organizations, First, globalization breaks down traditional
religious communities such as the Roman Catholic Church, communities and replaces them with larger, impersonal
the World Council of Churches, and the Jewish Diaspora organizations. As globalization creates a “global village,” it
also take part in international affairs. For instance, they dramatically alters what individuals traditionally
have taken part in events such the Jubilee 2000, an understood themselves by—“citizenship,” “nationality,” and
international effort advocating for cancelling Third World “immigration.” For instance, the European Union (EU) does
debt by the year 2000, and the World Faiths Development not call their members by country of origin but rather by
Dialogue, an effort of international faith leaders along with their greater title, European citizens. Moreover, such
the World Bank to support development agendas organizations set universal standards upon all members,
corresponding to the UN’s Millennium Development Goals. causing individuals to believe that they are not fairly
Furthermore, religious organizations have, themselves, represented. As a result, feeling that these organizations
been involved in interreligious dialogue. The Parliament of have shattered their “protective cocoon” that has shielded
the World’s Religions of 1993, first conveyed during the them in the past, many individuals find comfort in religion.
1893 Chicago World Exhibit, brought the world’s diverse
faith traditions—from African indigenous religions, the In giving individuals a sense of belonging,
major religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam), to any religious groups help them to find themselves in modern
forms of faith that would agree to civil dialogue through times. For instance, religious leaders, pointing to modern
mutual encounter—to use their similar values and discuss society’s loss of ethical values and increased corruption,
world affairs. preach, “the only answer to the current ‘decay’ is a return to
traditional values and religious norms.” Hence, religion
In terms of economics, as the economy of the supplies these individuals with a feeling of being a part of a
major countries of the world has grown, the main religions group that represents their interests and allows them to
of each of those countries have also grown financially, regain their traditional sense of who they are.
providing more financial resources for religions to spread
their beliefs. For example, although it may seem as an old Second, globalization brings economic
tactic, missionary work—especially in light of marginalization. For example, as transnational corporations
globalization—is strong in many Third World countries increasingly take over the role of the state’s involvement in
where religious representatives convert the natives. As a the economic sector, the government loses its status as a
result, the major religions today have scattered across the welfare provider. Moreover, increasing the gaps between
globe—Christianity turning “southern” and “black,” Islam those who have benefit from the global market (generally
turning “Asian,” and Buddhism turning “white” and the West) and those who have been left behind (generally
“western.” Still holding on to their original territorial spaces the Global South), globalization is seen as “Western
where their shrines exist, religions are fulfilling their imperialism,” as well as “Americanization.” For instance,
general purpose of spreading their beliefs to people all over globalization “encourage [es] people to buy American goods
the world. and services, which ultimately “undermines deep-rooted
communal values.” Simply put, individuals are bombarded
Finally, religion has tremendously benefited from with McDonald’s, Nike, and MTV.
technological advancements. For example, websites provide
information and explanations about different religions to By responding to individuals’ desire for welfare,
any person regardless of his or her geographical location, as as well as acting as a cultural protection against
well as provide the opportunity to contact others globalization, religion plays a social role and gains more
worldwide and hold debates which allow religious ideas to recognition from the marginalized, particularly those in
spread. Furthermore, television allows for religious Third World countries. For instance, religious organizations
channels that provide visual religious teachings and such as Catholic Relief Services, World Vision International,
practices. Hence, by making the leap onto the information and Islamic Relief Worldwide help serve the disadvantaged
superhighway, which brings religious teachings into every in areas such as poverty relief, health care, the HIV/AIDs
home and monitor in a global setting, religions have come crisis, and environment problems. In fact, even if only
together into one setting. promising prosperity and hope of economic relief, these
organizations draw massive followers as, by lacking
In short, globalization allows for religions “extensive transnational bureaucracies and chains of
previously isolated from one another to now have regular command,” they provide “the strength of collective identity
and unavoidable contact. As a result, globalization brings to and the depth of ethical commitments.”
the light the fact that since religions have similar values, not
one of them is “correct” and, therefore, can be changed. But Last but not least, globalization causes mental
as the next section shows, the same process that engenders stress. Although globalization allows for crisscrossing
greater religious tolerance also creates a backlash of borders, it also leaves individuals worrying about losing
religious parochialism. work, status, or other privileges. Moreover, since
globalization favors material prosperity as the aim of life
Globalization Creating Backlash of Religious over inner peace, individuals focus on attaining some
Parochialism material possession such as a house, car, game, or simply
any object. When they attain such item(s), however, they
Since globalization is considered as “the first truly find themselves empty inside and, therefore, realize that
world revolution,” “all revolutions disrupt the traditions inner peace can never be achieved through material
and customs of a people”—that is, “people’s very security, possessions.
safety, and identity.” As globalization disrupts traditional
communities, causes economic marginalization, and brings To these individuals then, religion provides them
mental stress, individuals feel these less desirable the way to inner peace and the sense of personal
consequences of globalization. With religion’s power to fulfillment. For example, individuals who feel insecure in
“convey a picture of security, stability, and simple answers” the globalized world, in business or personal life, will often
through stories and beliefs—unlike economic plans, pray to God for his spiritual support. In addition, these
political programs, or legal regulations—individuals turn to individuals realize that getting involved within their
religion. communities and organizing together in social movements

6
for a good cause brings more satisfaction to them than do other words, religious should be open to other traditions
material possessions. They see themselves as being part of and what they can teach. In fact, though having “fixed texts,”
something important and worthwhile. the major world religions do not have “fixed beliefs,” “only
fixed interpretations of those beliefs,” meaning their beliefs
In short, in face of rapid changes in the globalized can be “rediscovered, reinvented, and reconceptualized.”
world, to regain the sense of certainty, many individuals
turn to religion for a clear explanation of what is going on in As interesting examples, in their attempt to create
the world. With its strength as a powerful identity that the tradition of nonviolence from diverse religions and
brings the message of unity and security in times of crisis, cultures, three paradigmatic individuals—Leo Tolstoy,
religion provides the idea of a “home.” But as the last Mohandas Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, Jr.—have,
section demonstrates, this religious identity becomes a indeed, “rediscovered, reinvented, and reconceptualized”
major ingredient that reduces the self and the other to a the beliefs of the world’s major religions.[58] The three
number of cultural religious characteristics. individuals indicate that “it is possible for narrative
diversity to generate a shared ethic without sacrificing the
Religious Identity and Globalization: Furthering diversity of particular religions.”
Challenges
For instance, although coming from a gentry class
As the previous section shows, since God has set in Russia and receiving fame and fortune from his novels,
the rules and has made them difficult to challenge, religion Tolstoy converted to Christianity in part after reading a
provides answers to questions concerning self-identity. story about how a Syrian monk named Barlaam brought
However, in providing such answers, religion also institutes about the conversion of a young Indian prince named
a notion of “truth,” which implies an automatic exclusion of Josaphat, who gave up his wealth and family to seek an
the one—called an “abject”—who does not adhere to such answer to aging, sickness, and death. Deeply indebted in
“truth.” In times of uncertainty like globalization, therefore, Buddhism for his conversion to Christianity, Tolstoy,
collective identity is reduced to a number of cultural attempting to live his life by the teachings of Jesus’ Sermon
religious characteristics —“them” and “us” and “they” and on the Mount, gave away all his wealth and spent the rest of
“our.” In other words, the abject suddenly becomes his life serving the poor. Nevertheless, the story about
recognized as a threat. Barlaam and Josaphat has “worked its way into virtually all
the world’s religions.”
For example, since the 9/11 attacks, there has
been a tendency of the West to link the religion of Islam Similarly, Gandhi, when he encountered Tolstoy’s
with terrorist practices while Al-Qaeda links the US as writings, drew his attention to the power of the Sermon on
Christian or a Judeo-Christian nation. On the one hand, Al- the Mount. In encountering Jesus’ Sermon, Gandhi became
Qaeda men who hijacked the planes on 9/11 saw the motivated to “turn the great Hindu narrative from the
passengers and those working in the World Trade Center Mahabharata, the Bhagavad Gita, in order to find the
and Pentagon as “abjects” of Islam. On the other hand, the message of nonviolence within his own religion and
US-led invasion of Afghanistan and then Iraq turned into culture.” By finding that Tolstoy’s understanding of the
wars of “Islamofacism” and a “crusade” to the divine in Sermon on the Mount lacked “nonviolence as an active
getting rid of evil. Moreover, other attacks on innocent rather than a passive virtue . . . capable of producing an
people based on cultural religious characteristics occur active resistance to evil,” he found it present in the
today: Muslims in the United States, Western Europe, or Bhagavad Gita. As a result, Ghandi transformed the
India, Kurds in Iraq, and Jews in France. In other words, Bhagavad Gita from a story that authorized killing to one of
though socially constructed, these cultural religious nonviolence reflected from the story of Jacob wrestling with
characteristics become a unifying force against others not the stranger and Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount.
adhering to a particular truth.
Lastly, Martin Luther King, Jr. also drew insight
Interestingly then, the idea of religious identity in from Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism. For
this era of globalization may hold in-line with Huntington’s instance, connecting Gandhi with Jesus Christ, he saw
thesis. According to Huntington (1990), while conflict Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolence as similar to Jesus’
during the Cold War occurred between the Capitalist West suffering on the cross. Therefore, King’s theological theme
and the Communist Bloc East, current and future conflicts was the idea that “unmerited suffering is redemptive,”
are most likely to occur between the world’s major meaning he constantly reminded blacks that they would
civilizations, and not the states, including Western, Latin experience a “season of suffering” before they would
American, Islamic, Sinic (Chinese), Hindu, Orthodox, achieve justice. In general terms, King’s theology focused on
Japanese, and the African. In a broader sense, having paved values grounded in religion—justice, love, and hope. In
the way for religions to come in direct contacts with one short, as Tolstoy, Ghandi, and King illustrate, “narrative
another, globalization has, indeed, brought religions to a traditions are not mutually exclusive.” They are connected
circle of competition and conflicts. As long as religions see through themes and, therefore, allow religions to engage in
themselves as “world religions” and reinforce their specific interreligious dialogue.
identities, the chance for religions to avoid conflict among
one another is grey. Luckily, the final section brings some As this essay’s previous sections show, religions
hope on how religions can use their existing principles as have, indeed, taken part in dialogues beforehand. As a
ways to overlook their differences. further example, religious leaders gathered at the UN’s
Millennium Peace Summit in September 2000 to mark the
Conclusion turn of the millennium. A milestone in itself, as the UN is
not a common ground in the sense of an ecumenical
In a time in which globalization has yet to fully meeting inside a church, synagogue, or mosque but rather a
complete its process, religions must use the communication global common ground, the Summit’s conversation
easily available through advanced technology to focus more encouraged that world’s religious communities stop
on the humane and pluralistic forms of their teachings— fighting and arguing amongst themselves and begin
values such as human dignity and human freedom—as working together for peace, justice, and social harmony. As
means to manage religious diversity and avoid violence. In then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan addressed to the

7
Summit, “Whatever your past, whatever your calling, and Major Religions
whatever the differences among you, your presence here at Islam Hinduism
the United Nations signifies your commitment to our global
mission of tolerance, development, and peace.”

Moreover, as transnational corporations

increasingly become actors in the international system, one
could argue that religious communities have agreed on “the
emerging global ethic” which consists of three major
components: 1) corporations are prohibited from involving
in bribes and corruption, 2) corporations are prohibited
from discriminating on the grounds of race, religion,
ethnicity, or gender in the conduct of business, and 3)
corporations are prohibited from activities that pose a
significant threat to human life and health. Simply put,
these components are, in themselves, religious values used
to regulate the way transitional corporations increasingly
engage in the global market.

The bottom line is that the pieces of interreligious

dialogue to manage religious diversity and to avoid violence
are there, but the problem may be of globalization’s Major Religions
intentional and/or unintentional consequence of making Sikhism Jainism
religions more conscious of themselves as “world religions,”
as well as the undesirable consequences of disrupting
traditional communities, causing economic marginalization,
and bringing individuals mental stress—all reinforcing
religious cultural characteristics and identities. Hence, the
relationship between religion and globalization has brought
new possibilities but also furthering challenges.

Concept Check

Research: The World’s Religions Differentiated

Directions: To compare is to tell how two or more

things are alike. To contrast is to tell how two or more
things are different. Clue words such as like or as show
comparisons. Clue words such as but or unlike show
contrasts. Often authors don’t use clue words. Readers must
make comparisons for themselves. Use this chart to
compare and contrast any two major religions of the world.

Major Religions
Major Religions Buddhism Confucianism
Judaism Christianity

8
 SUMMARY

Globalization refers to the historical process by

which all the world's people increasingly come to live in a
STUDENT FEEDABCK
single social unit. It implicates religion and religions in
several ways. From religious or theological perspectives,
globalization calls forth religious response and
interpretation. Yet religion and religions have also played
important roles in bringing about and characterizing
globalization. Among the consequences of this implication
for religion have been that globalization encourages
religious pluralism. Religions identify themselves in
relation to one another, and they become less rooted in
particular places because of diasporas and transnational
ties. Globalization further provides fertile ground for a
variety of noninstitutionalized religious manifestations and
for the development of religion as a political and cultural
resource.

REFERENCES

 Steger, Manfred B., Paul Battersby, and Joseph M.

Siracusa, eds. [Link] SAGE Handbook of
Globalization. Two volumes. Thousand Oaks: SAGE
Publications.

SUGGESTED READINGS

 Aguilar, Filomeno V. 2012. “Differentiating

Sedimented from Modular Transnationalism: The
View from East Asia.” Asian and Pacific Migration
Journal 21(2): 149–171.
 Bello, Walden F. 2006. “The Multiple Crises of
Global Capitalism.” In Deglobalization: Ideas for a
New World Economy, pp. 1-31. Quezon City:
Ateneo de Manila University Press.
 Castles, Stephen. 2000. “International Migration at
the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century: Global
Trends and Issues.” International Social Science
Journal 52 (165): 269–281.
 Carter, April. 2001. “Global Civil Society: Acting as
Global Citizens” in The Political Theory of Global
Citizenship, pp. 147-176 London: Routledge.
 Connell, Raewyn. 2007. “Dependency, Autonomy
and Culture. In Southern Theory: The Global
Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science, pp. 139-
163. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.