UNIT-I

COMPUTER NETWORKS
UNIT-I SYLLABUS
Introduction: Network Types, LAN, MAN, WAN, Network Topologies
Reference models- The OSI Reference Model- the TCP/IP Reference
Model - A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models,
OSI Vs TCP/IP, Lack of OSI models success, Internet History.
Physical Layer:
Introduction to Guided Media- Twisted-pair cable, Coaxial cable and
Fiber optic cable and unguided media: Wireless-Radio waves,
microwaves, infrared.
WHAT IS A COMPUTER NETWORK?
• A set of communication elements connected by communication links.
– Communication elements: Computers, printers, mobiles, routers,
switches etc..
– Communication links:
– Wired: optical fibbers, coaxial cables, twisted pairs.
– Wireless: radio waves, micro waves, satellite communication.
WHAT IS A COMPUTER NETWORK?
• A computer network is a collection of devices (like computers,
printers, servers, etc.) connected together to share information and
resources and communicate with each other.
• The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among
various devices.
 Devices(Nodes)

Links(Connections)

KEY
COMPONENTS Communication Protocols

Types of Networks
KEY COMPONENTS
• Devices (Nodes): These are the individual computers, servers,
printers, etc., that make up the network.
• Links (Connections): These are the physical or wireless connections
that link the devices together. They can be cables, fiber optic lines, or
wireless signals.
• Communication Protocols: These are the rules and standards that
govern how data is transmitted and received across the network. Some
common protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
• LAN(Local Area Network)
• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN(Wide Area Network)
LAN(LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

• As the name suggests, the local area network is a computer network

that operates in a small area, i.e.,
• it connects computers in a small geographical area like within an
office, company, school or any other organization.
• A local area network may be a wired or wireless network or a
combination of both.
FEATURES OF LAN:

• The network size is small, which consists of only a few kilometers.

• The data transmission rate is high, ranging from 100 Mbps to 1000
Mbps.
• LAN is included in bus, ring, mesh and star topologies.
• Some network devices connected to the LAN will be limited.
• If more devices are added than prescribed network may fail.
BENEFITS OF LAN:

• It offers a higher operating speed than WAN and MAN.

• It is less expensive and easy to install and maintain.
• It perfectly fulfills the requirement of a specific organization, such as
an office, school, etc.
• Drawbacks:
• Limited Coverage: Restricted to a small geographical area.
• High Dependency: A failure in the central server or router can disrupt
the entire network.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN):

• MAN is a high-speed network that spreads over a large geographical area

such as a metro city or town.
• It is set up by connecting the local area networks using routers and local
telephone exchange lines.
• It can be operated by a private company or it may be a service provided by a
company such as a local telephone company.
• Examples of MAN:
• Cable TV Network
• Telephone service provides that provide high-speed DSL lines
• Connected fire stations in a city
• Connected branches of a school in a city
FEATURES OF MAN:

• The size of the MAN is in the range of 5km to 50km.

• The MAN ranges from the campus to the entire city.
• The MAN is maintained and manage either the user group or the
Network provider.
• Users can achieve the sharing of regional resources by using MAN.
• The data transmission rates can be medium to high
ADVANTAGES OF MAN:

• Less Expensive: It is less expensive to set up a MAN and to connect it to a WAN.

• High Speed: The speed of data transfer is more than WAN.
• Local Emails: It can send local emails fast.
• Easy to set up: You can easily set up a MAN by connecting multiple LANs.
• High Security: It is more secure than WAN.
Disadvantages:
• Complex Setup: More complex to set up than LAN due to the larger area and additional
hardware.
• Higher Costs: More expensive than LANs due to longer cables, additional routers, and
switches.
• Maintenance Issues: Troubleshooting and maintaining a MAN requires specialized
expertise.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN):
• The Wide Area Network (WAN) is designed to connect devices over large
distances like states or between countries.
• The WAN network can be made up of multiple LAN and MAN networks.
• WAN extends over a large geographical area. It is not confined and is
mainly set up by telephone lines, fiber optic, or satellite links.
• It is mostly used by big organizations like banks and multinational
companies to communicate with their branches and customers across the
world.
• Although it is structurally terms of its range, e.g., MAN covers up to 50
Kms, whereas WAM covers distances larger than 50Km, e.g., 1000km or
more.
FEATURES OF WAN:

• Has a much larger capacity.

• We can share the regional resources by using WAN.
• They have more bit-rate errors.
• The transmission delay is, and hence they need more communication
speed.
EXAMPLES OF WAN:
• Internet
• US defense department
• Stock exchanges network
• Railway reservation system
• Big Banks' cash dispensers' network
• Satellite systems
ADVANTAGES OF WAN
• This network covers a high geographical area and is used for large-
distance connections.
• Centralized data: It allows your different office branches to use your
head office server for retrieving and sharing data.
• High bandwidth: It offers high bandwidth than a normal broadband
connection.
• Workload Distribution: It helps distribute your workload to other
locations. You can hire employees in different countries and assign
them to work from your office.
DISADVANTAGES OF WAN
• High Cost: Expensive due to infrastructure, satellite links, and long-
distance communication technologies.
• Lower Speed: Slower than LAN and MAN due to latency and long-
distance data transmission.
• Complex Setup: Requires extensive planning, configuration, and
high-end networking equipment.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES:

• Network topologies refer to the physical or logical arrangement of

network devices (like computers, servers, and switches) and how they
are interconnected. The choice of topology impacts the network's
performance, scalability, reliability, and cost.
TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGY
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology
BUS TOPOLOGY:

• A bus topology orients all the devices on a network along a single

cable running in a single direction from one end of the network to the
other—which is why it’s sometimes called a “line topology” or
“backbone topology.” Data flow on the network also follows the route
of the cable, moving in one direction.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network
will receive the message whether it has been addressed or not.
Advantages:
• Easy to set up and inexpensive for small networks.
• Requires less cable compared to other topologies.
Disadvantages:
• If the main cable fails, the entire network is affected.
• Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously,
then the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
RING TOPOLOGY:
• Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing:

• A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to
computer until it reaches the destination.
• The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
• The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it
sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
• In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages:
• Data flows in a predictable path, reducing collisions.
• Suitable for token-based communication.
Disadvantages:
• If one device or connection fails, the entire network is disrupted.
• Troubleshooting is challenging.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can
disturb the whole topology.
Dual-Ring Topology:
A network with ring topology is half-duplex, meaning data can only move in one direction at a time.
Ring topologies can be made full-duplex by adding a second connection between network nodes,
creating a dual ring topology.

Advantage:
The primary advantage of a dual-ring topology is its efficiency, as data can travel both clockwise and
counterclockwise. The secondary ring provides redundancy, ensuring the network remains operational if
one ring fails. Additionally, it offers enhanced security and reliability compared to traditional ring
topology.
STAR TOPOLOGY:

• A star topology, the most common network topology, is laid out so

every node in the network is directly connected to one central hub via
coaxial, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic cable. Acting as a server, this
central node manages data transmission—as information sent from any
node on the network has to pass through the central one to reach its
destination—and functions as a repeater, which helps prevent data
loss.
Advantages:
 Easy to add or remove devices without disrupting the network.
 Centralized management and monitoring.
 Failure of one device doesn't affect the others.
Disadvantages:
 If the central hub fails, the entire network goes down.
 Requires more cables than a bus topology.
MESH TOPOLOGY:

 Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
 There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
 It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point
of communication.
 The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
 Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures
are a critical concern.
 Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
 Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
 Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all
the computers available in the network.
 Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers
are connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.
Advantages:
 High reliability and redundancy.
 Easy to isolate faults.
Disadvantages:
 High cost due to the number of connections and cables required.
 Complex installation and maintenance.
TREE TOPOLOGY:
• A hierarchical topology where devices are connected in a tree-like structure, combining features of bus and
star topologies.

Advantages:
 Scalable and easy to manage.
 Suitable for networks requiring central
control.
Disadvantages:
 If the backbone fails, the network segments
become isolated.
 High cabling requirements.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY:

• Structure: Combines two or more different types of topologies (e.g.,

star-bus, star-ring).
Advantages:
o Flexible and scalable.
o Can leverage the strengths of different
topologies.
Disadvantages:
o High cost and complexity in design and
maintenance.
OSI REFERENCE MODEL
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that
explains how different computer systems communicate over a
network.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable
tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OSI MODEL:
The OSI model has two main parts: upper layers and lower layers.

• Upper Layers: Focus on application-related tasks and are

implemented in software. The application layer, closest to the user,
interacts with software applications to provide services.
• Lower Layers: Handle data transport and are implemented in both
hardware and software. The physical layer, the lowest layer, interacts
with the physical medium and is responsible for transmitting
information.
 7 LAYERS OF OSI MODEL
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are given
below:
1) PHYSICAL LAYER
• The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the
individual bits from one node to another node.
• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
• It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
• It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.
FUNCTIONS OF A PHYSICAL LAYER:

• Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can
be connected physically.
• Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is
simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices
on the network.
• Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.
2) DATA-LINK LAYER
• This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
• It defines the format of the data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
• It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that
resides on a local network.
• It contains two sub-layers:
– MAC (Media Access Control): Manages access to the physical
medium.
– LLC (Logical Link Control): Ensures error checking and frame
synchronization.
FUNCTIONS OF THE DATA-LINK LAYER

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a

way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to
the beginning and end of the frame.
• The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The
header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination
and source address.
Physical Addressing
• Assigns MAC addresses to devices for unique identification on the local network.
• Ensures data is delivered to the correct device within the same network.
Flow Control: Manages the rate of data transmission to prevent the sender from
overwhelming the receiver.
Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to
the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr,
then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted
frames.
Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine
which device has control over the link at a given time.
3) NETWORK LAYER
• It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of
devices on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of service,
and other factors.
• The Network layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the
packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and
used to provide the routing services within an internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network
layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
FUNCTIONS OF NETWORK LAYER:
• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different
devices.
• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination
address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the
device on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from
source to the destination.
• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper
layer and converts them into packets. This process is known as
Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP).
4) TRANSPORT LAYER
• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted
in the order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
smaller units known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-
to-point connection between source and destination to deliver the data
reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:
• Transmission Control Protocol
• User Datagram Protocol
 FUNCTIONS OF THE TRANSPORT LAYER (SIMPLIFIED):
1. Service-point Addressing:
Ensures data is delivered to the correct process on the destination device by adding a port address
(service-point address) in the header. It handles communication between processes, not just devices.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly:
Divides messages into smaller segments, each with a unique sequence number, for transmission. At the
destination, these segments are reassembled in the correct order.
3. Connection Control:
1. Connection-oriented service: Establishes a connection before transmitting packets, with all
packets following the same route.
2. Connectionless service: Sends packets independently, possibly taking different routes to the
destination.
4. Flow Control:
Manages the flow of data end-to-end between sender and receiver to prevent overwhelming the
destination.
5. Error Control:
Ensures error-free delivery of messages end-to-end by detecting and correcting errors during
transmission.
5) SESSION LAYER

•It is a layer 5 in the OSI model.

•The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
• Dialog control: Responsible for managing how data flows between
two devices which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle
of the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again
from the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and
recovery.
6) PRESENTATION LAYER
• The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data
from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the
Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESENTATION
LAYER
• Translation: Converts data between sender and receiver formats to
ensure compatibility, handling differences in encoding methods.
• Encryption: Ensures privacy by converting data into a secure format
before transmission.
• Compression: Reduces the size of data (e.g., text, audio, video) to
minimize transmission time and bandwidth usage.
7) APPLICATION LAYER
• An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.
• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation,
etc.
• An application layer is not an application, but it performs the
application layer functions.
• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
• Functions of Application layer:
• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application
layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve
the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.
• Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
TCP/IP MODEL

• TCP/IP developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s.

• It is name is a four-layered suite of communication protocols.
• It was developed after the two main protocols that are used in the
model, namely, TCP and IP.
• TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol" and IP stands for
"Internet Protocol".
TCP/IP MODEL
THE TCP/IP MODEL IS DIVIDED INT O FOUR DIFFERENT
LAYERS:
• TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.
• It is the network model used in the current Internet architecture as
well.
• Protocols are set of rules which govern every possible communication
over a network.
• These protocols describe the movement of data between the source
and destination or the internet.
THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAM SHOWS THE LAYERS AND
THE PROT OCOLS IN EACH OF THE LAYERS −
• Application Layer − Represents data to the user, encoding, dialog control.
• This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
etc.
• Transport Layer −
• Support the communication between diverse devices across the diverse networks.
• It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data. The protocols defined
here are TCP and UDP.
• Internet Layer −Determines the best path through the network.
• It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the network. The main
protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols
ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
• Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the
physical transmission of data.
PDU(PROTOCOL DATA UNIT)

• Protocol Data unit(PDUs) are named according to the protocols of the

TCP/IP suite, data, segment, packet, frame, bits.
APPLICATION LAYER-DATA

TRANSPORT LAYER-SEGMENTS

NETWORK LAYER-PACKET

DATA LINK LAYER-FRAME

PHYSICAL LAYER-BITS
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model
OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Full Form
Interconnection Protocol
Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers
Usage It is low in usage It is mostly used
Approach It is vertically approached It is horizontally approached
Delivery of the package is
Delivery Delivery of the package is not guaranteed in TCP/IP Model
guaranteed in OSI Model
Replacement of tools and changes
Replacement Replacing the tools is not easy as it is in OSI Model
can easily be done in this model
Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model It is more reliable than OSI Model
Not tied to specific protocols, but
examples include HTTP
Protocol
(Application), SSL/TLS HTTP, FTP, TCP, UDP, IP, Ethernet
Example
(Presentation), TCP (Transport), IP
(Network), Ethernet (Data Link)
Error Built into Data Link and Transport
Built into protocols like TCP
Handling layers
Both connection-oriented (TCP) and
Connection
connectionless (UDP) protocols are TCP (connection-oriented), UDP (connectionless)
Orientation
covered at the Transport layer
LACK OF OSI MODELS SUCCESS
• The OSI model, while foundational for understanding networks, wasn’t widely
adopted for practical use due to several reasons:
[Link] Complex: It’s detailed and theoretical, making it hard to implement in real-
world systems.
[Link] Arrival: By the time it was standardized, TCP/IP was already widely used.
[Link]/IP Dominance: TCP/IP was simpler, more efficient, and better supported,
becoming the preferred choice for the internet.
[Link] and Market Preference: Companies had already invested heavily in
TCP/IP-based solutions.
5. Rigid Design: OSI’s strict layering didn’t adapt well to evolving technologies.
6. Implementation Issues: OSI protocols were resource-heavy and slower
compared to TCP/IP.
7. Limited Support: Major tech players and vendors focused on TCP/IP, leaving
OSI behind.
8. Educational Use: The OSI model is primarily used for teaching, not practical
implementations.
• Conclusion: OSI wasn’t a failure—it’s a great conceptual tool, but TCP/IP’s
simplicity, timing, and adaptability made it the real-world winner.
INTERNET HISTORY
• 1969: Launch of ARPANET, the first operational packet-switching network.

• 1971: The first email is sent by Ray Tomlinson.

• 1983: Adoption of TCP/IP as the standard protocol for ARPANET.

• 1989-1990: Tim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web.

• 1993: The first graphical web browser, Mosaic, is released.

• 1998: Google is founded, revolutionizing search engines.

• 2007: The iPhone introduces widespread mobile Internet access.

• 2010s: Rise of cloud computing, social media, and streaming services.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• Transmission media refers to the physical medium through which data is
transmitted from one device to another within a network.
• These medium can be wired or wireless.
• The choice of medium depends on factors like distance, speed.
GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Guided transmission media, also known as wired or bounded media, use

physical pathways to transmit data signals.
• These pathways are typically made of wires or cables.
• It provides High Speed, Security.
• Used for comparatively shorter distances.
1. TWISTED PAIR CABLE:

• To try to reduce electromagnetic interference, insulated copper wires are twisted

together in pairs to create twisted pair cables.
• A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
• Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The
frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

Applications: Telephones, Ethernet cables.

T YPES OF TWIST ED PAIR:

• Unshielded Twisted Pair:

• An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.
Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
• Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
• Category 2: It can support up to 4Mbps.
• Category 3: It can support up to 16Mbps.
• Category 4: It can support up to 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
• Category 5: It can support up to 200Mbps.
UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR:
Advantages:
• It is cheap.
• Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
• It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
• This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
• A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
• The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
• An installation of STP is easy.
• It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
• It has a higher attenuation.
• It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.
Disadvantages:
• It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
• It has a higher attenuation rate.
COAXIAL CABLE
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
• The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each
other.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
• Applications: Cable TV, broadband internet.
The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
• Coaxial cable is of two types:

• Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high

speed.
• Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.

Advantages:
• The data can be transmitted at high speed.
• It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
• It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
• It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
• If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
FIBRE OPTIC
• Optical fiber is a thin, flexible strand of glass or plastic that transmits light signals
over long distances. It is used for telecommunications and networking.
Structure: An optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and a protective coating.
• Core: The central part of the fiber where light travels.
• Cladding: A layer surrounding the core with a lower refractive index.
• Coating: A protective layer that shields the fiber from external damage.

Classification in terms of its mode of propagation is as follows:

• Single-Mode Fibres: These fibers are used to transmit signals over long distances.
• Multimode Fibres: These fibers are used to transmit signals over short
distances.
Advantages:
• High bandwidth and speed.
• Immune to electromagnetic interference.
• Long-distance communication.
Applications: High-speed internet
UNGUIDED MEDIA

• Unguided media refers to communication systems where signals are

transmitted through free space, without the use of physical conduits
like cables or optical fibers.
• Radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves are commonly used in
unguided communication.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
PROPAGATION MODES
RADIO WAVES

• Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave with frequencies

ranging from 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
Characteristics:
– They can travel long distances.
– They are omnidirectional (spread in all directions).
– Can pass through buildings and obstacles to some extent.
OMNI DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions.
Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission
Applications:
– AM/FM radio broadcasting.
– Television broadcasting.
– Mobile and satellite communication.
– Wireless networks (Wi-Fi).
Advantages:
– Suitable for long-range communication.
– Low attenuation (signal loss) over large areas.
Limitations:
– Vulnerable to interference from other signals.
– Lower bandwidth compared to higher-frequency waves.
MICROWAVES

• Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies typically

ranging from 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
Characteristics:
– Highly directional, requiring line-of-sight transmission.
– Cannot easily penetrate obstacles like walls or buildings.
– Suitable for short-range communication due to higher attenuation.
 UNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA
Microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the horn.
TYPES OF MICROWAVES
Terrestrial Microwaves
These are used for point-to-point communication between fixed
locations. Signals travel in a straight line and require antennas to be
aligned precisely.
Frequency Range: Typically 1 GHz to 40 GHz.
Applications:
– Communication between buildings in a campus.
– Long-distance data transmission without relying on physical cables.
• Advantages:
• High data transmission rates.
• Useful in remote or rugged terrains where laying cables is
impractical.
• Limitations:
• Line-of-sight is required between antennas.
• Affected by weather conditions like rain or fog.
SATELLITE MICROWAVES
• These use communication satellites to transmit signals between distant
points on Earth. Data is sent from a ground station to a satellite and then
relayed to another ground station.
Frequency Range:
• Uplink: Around 6 GHz.
• Downlink: Around 4 GHz or higher.
• Applications:
• Global communication systems.
• Internet services in remote areas.
• Broadcasting services like TV and radio.
Advantages:
• Wide coverage area (global reach).
• Effective for intercontinental communication.
Limitations:
• Signal latency due to long distances.
• Expensive to deploy and maintain.
INFRARED WAVES

• Infrared waves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging

from approximately 300 GHz to 400 THz.
Characteristics:
– Operate in the line-of-sight mode.
– Cannot penetrate walls or opaque objects.
– Short-range communication.
Applications:
– Remote controls (TVs, ACs, etc.).
– Short-range communication systems (e.g., infrared data association
- IrDA).
– Thermal imaging and sensors.
Advantages:
– Secure communication as signals do not pass through walls.
– Low interference with other devices.
Limitations:
– Limited to very short distances.
– Affected by physical obstructions and environmental conditions
like fog or smoke.