COMPUTER DEVICES

INTRODUCTION TO IDENTIFICATION OF COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Terminologies used in ICT
 Computer: A computer is an electronic device which works under the control of stored programs which
automatically enable it to accept, store, process, and produce information to be used by the management for
decision making.
 Data: - these are basic raw facts or figures that may have no much meaning to users.
 Information: - refers to results of data processing
 Processing: - the act of collecting raw data from a source document, feeding the data into a computer via a
keyboard, converting the data into an understandable language of computer to be manipulate to produce a
reliable data (information)
 Program/Software: - these are step by step set of instructions which enables computer system to perform
some specific functions
 GIGO: - is a term used in computers and stands for garbage in garbage out. It is used to mean that computer
will always conform to the instructions given to it by the user. Hence the term garbage in garbage out.

The forms of data processed by a computer include:

 Data – e.g. invoices, sales ledger, purchase ledger, payroll, stock controls, etc.
 Text – widely available in many offices with microcomputers
 Graphics – e.g. business graphs, symbols
 Images – e.g. pictures
 Voice – e.g. telephone

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER, which make it an essential part of every emerging technology

and such a desirable tool in human development.
Use of computers has become a necessity in many fields. Computers have revolutionized the way businesses are
conducted. This is due to the advantages that computer systems offer over manual systems.
1. Speedy: A computer processes data at an extremely fast rate, i.e. at millions or billions of instructions per
second. In a few seconds, a computer can perform a huge task that a normal human being may take days or
even years to complete.
2. Accurate: The computer is capable of doing only what it is instructed to do.
3. Reliable: Generally, reliability is the measurement of the performance of a computer, which is measured
against some predetermined standard for operation without any failure. The major reason behind the
reliability of the computers is that, at hardware level, it does not require any human intervention between its
processing operations. Moreover, computers have built-in diagnostic capabilities, which help in continuous
monitoring of the system.
4. High Storage Capability: Computers can store large amounts of data and it can recall the required
information almost instantaneously. The memory of the computer is relatively small and it can hold only a
certain amount of information. Therefore, the data are stored on storage devices such as magnetic tape or
disks. The data from these devices can be accessed and brought into the primary/main memory of the
computer, as and when required, for processing.
5. Versatile/Flexible: Computers are quite versatile in nature. They can perform multiple tasks simultaneously
with equal ease. For example, at one moment it can be used to prepare a letter, at the other moment it can be
used to play music and in between one can print a document as well. All this work is possible by changing the
program (sequence of instructions for computers).
6. Diligent/Tireless: Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and lack of
concentration. If four million calculations have to be performed, then the computer will perform the last four-
millionth calculation with the same accuracy and speed as the first calculation.
7. Resource Sharing: In the initial stages of development, computer used to be an isolated machine. With the
tremendous growth in computer technologies, today's computers have the capability to connect with each
other. This has made the sharing of costly resources like printers possible. Apart from device sharing, data

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 and information can also be shared among groups of computers, thus creating a large information and
knowledge base.
8. No feelings: Computers have no feelings and no instincts because they are machine. Computers cannot make
judgments on their own. Their judgment is based on instructions given to them in form of programs that are
written by us.
9. Automation: you can perform repetitive functions through the programs; the instructions are carried out
automatically till a job is complete.

Computer has certain LIMITATIONS also.

o As a machine, it can perform only what it is programmed to do; nothing more and nothing less. In
addition, it needs well-defined instructions to perform any operation. Therefore, computers are unable to
give any conclusion without going through intermediate steps.
o It can make plans based on situations and information though it cannot foresee whether they will succeed
or not.
o Computer parts require regular checking and maintenance to give correct results. Furthermore, computers
need to be installed in a dust-free place. Generally, some parts of the computers get heated up due to heavy
processing. Therefore, an ambient temperature of the computer system should be maintained.
o Can cause health problems - use of computers cause health related problems such as neck strains,
eyestrain, backaches.
o Reduce employment opportunities-one computer can perform several tasks that could have been
performed by several people hence causes unemployment

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Computer hardware devices

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HARDWARE
Definition: computer hardware are physical or tangible components of a computer system, they include input,
output, CPU back-up and bus system.
INPUT DEVICES
1. Pointing devices
a. Mouse is a small hand-held pointing device which has two or three buttons (primary, secondary and a
scroll button) used for clicking on items or icons on computer screen, to input commands or information.
Some of the functions of a mouse include:
 Clicking – means pressing and releasing the left mouse button once
 Double clicking – pressing the left button twice in quick succession
 Right clicking – pressing the right hand side mouse button once
 Drag and drop – the user drags an item from one location to another
i.e. Drag – press and hold down left button and then move the mouse to the new location
Drop – release the button immediately after dragging the item to the new location.

There are different types of mouse available in the market.

- Standard/ mechanical mouse: Has a ball underneath, two buttons and an optional scroll button
located between the left and right buttons.
- Optical mouse: Does not have any moveable parts. It uses infrared light and special mouse pad
with fine grid lines to measure the rotation of the axle. The axle is connected to a little photo-
interrupter wheel through which the computer moves the cursor on the screen based on the
coordinates received from the mouse.
- Cordless/wireless: It’s battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared waves instead of
being physically connected to the system unit.
b. Trackball – It resembles a mouse; it has a ball nestled in a square cradle and serves as an alternative to a
mouse. The device comes in various shapes and forms; the three shapes commonly used are a ball, a
button and a square. It has a ball that can be rotated by fingers in any direction, the cursor moves
accordingly. It is static device so rather than rolling the mouse on the top of the table, the ball on the top
is moved by using fingers, thumbs and palms.

c. Joystick – is a pointing device which looks like a car gear lever. It is a device that moves in all directions
and controls the movement of the cursor. The basic design of a joystick consists of a stick that is attached
to a plastic base with a flexible rubber beneath. The plastic base houses a circuit board that measures the
movement of the stick from its central position and sends the information for processing.

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 A joystick is mainly used for:-
Computer games
Flight simulations
Training simulators
CAD/CAM systems
Controlling industrial robots.
d. Lightpen– It’s a pen like device (Sometimes called a mouse pen), which is a hand-held electro-optical
pointing device, which when touched to or aimed closely at a connected computer monitor, will allow the
computer to determine where on the screen the pen is aimed.

It facilitates the drawing of image and selects object on the display screen by directly pointing on the
objects with the pen.
The pen has a light sensitive-diode which senses the light coming from the screen and with the
movement of the light pen over the screen; the lines or images are drawn.
Light pens are advantageous or perfect for applications where desk space is limited, in harsh
workplace environments and in any situation where fast accurate inputs are required and where
there’s no need to type or write.
e. Stylus – This is a pointing device that is used to input commands on some mobile devices such as PDAs
that recognizes commands or handwritten data. It does not have to have a cable connection or light
sensitive diode.

f. Touch screen – It is a special kind of display screen device, which is placed on the computer monitor in
order to allow the direct selection or activation of the computer when somebody touches the screen using
the finger or a stylus. The screen consists of infrared light crisscrossing behind it, which reacts to touch
causing it to respond to a command.

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 Typically, touch screens are used in information providing systems like hospitals, airlines and
railways reservation counters, amusement parks, smart phones, PDAs, some ATMs and retail stores.

A basic touch screen has three main components: a touch sensor/panel, a controller, and driver
software. The touch sensor is the screen with a responsive surface that reacts to the touch. The
controller is a small that connects the touch sensor and the computer. It takes information from the
touch sensor and translates it into information that the computer can understand. The driver is a
software update for the computer that allows the touch screen and the computer to work together. It
tells the operating system to interpret the touch action/event that is sent from the controller.
g. Interactive whiteboard/Smartboard – it is a large interactive display that connects to a computer. The
computer display is projected onto a board’s surface, where users control the computer by using a pen or
a finger. The board is typically mounted to a wall or on a floor stand. Smartboards are used in places such
as classrooms, corporate boardrooms, etc.

2. Keying devices
Keyboard is an example of an input device used to convert and key in data inform of machine code
(understandable language of computer).

Types of keyboard
 Cordless keyboard – is a battery powered keyboard that buses Bluetooth technology instead of being
physically connected to system unit.
 Braille keyboard – is designed for use by the blind. Has keys identified by raised dots.
 Ergonomic keyboard – is designed specifically to provide comfort and eliminate wrist pain to users.
 Flexible keyboard – is a portable keyboard that can be folded and packed in a bag.
 Traditional keyboard – is a full sized rigid keyboard.

3. Scanning devices
They are devices that capture data into the computer directly.

They include:
- Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
- Optical Bar Recognition (OBR)
- Optical Character Reader (OCR)
- Magnetic – Ink character recognition (MICR)

4. Speech Input/Voice Recognition Devices

- Speech recognition is a technology that allows spoken input into systems. You talk to your computer,
phone or device and it uses what you said as input to trigger some action. The technology is being used to
replace other methods of input like typing, clicking or selecting in other ways. It is a means to make
devices and software more user-friendly and to increase productivity.
- For example, certain phones, or rather smartphones, can initiate a call to a contact by just getting spoken
instructions like ‘Call office’. Other commands may also be entertained, like ‘Switch on Bluetooth’. The
iPhone 5 is a good example of this.
5. Digitizers/Graphics Tablet

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 It’s a flat board which you can write or draw on a with a pressure sensitive stylus (like a pen). Movement
across the pad is mirror by drawing on the screen. Used for artwork and computer aided design (architectural
and other detailed drawing).

6. Digital Camera
 Digital camera stores images rather than recording them on a film. Once a picture has been taken, it can be
downloaded to a computer system and then manipulated with an image editing software and printed.
 The big advantage of digital cameras is that making photos is both inexpensive and fast because there is no
film processing.

7. Direct Input from Instruments

Other digital input devices may include the following; measuring devices known as sensors can be linked to a
computer. There are many types with many uses; some are digital and electronic, some produce a voltage
which can be converted to a digital signal with an analog-to-digital convertor (ADC).

Examples of direct input are as follows:

 Thermostats connected to a computer-controlled central heating system to monitor temperature and to
help save electricity.
 Pressure pads on a road connected to computer-controlled traffic lights to speed traffic flow.
 Sensors to record temperature, light, humidity, in a greenhouse to ensure the best conditions for plant
growth.
 Remote control emits a beam of infrared light which carries data signals. Commonly used for TVs and
VCRs and now becoming used by computers as a “wireless” of communication.
 Midi instruments are normal musical instruments which have a midi port for input into a midi interface
in the computer. The music can then be stored as a file, displayed on screen and edited ready for
playback.
 Microphone for the input of voice in place of using the keyboard and mouse. Special software is used to
convert voice into text or to activate menu options. This requires fast processing and a lot of memory
and will become common as technology improves.

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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (C.P.U)
It’s the brain of a computer. It consists of control unit, arithmetic and logic unit and main memory. The main
function of C.P.U is to process raw data to information.
1. To carry out instructions and to tell the rest of the computer system what to do. This is done by the control
unit (CU) of the CPU which supervises the execution of program instructions and sends commands signals
to the other components of the system.
2. To perform arithmetic calculations and data manipulations, e.g. comparisons, sorting, combining, etc. The
computer’s calculator is a part of the CPU known as the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU).
3. To hold data and instructions which are in current use. These are kept in the main memory.

STORAGE DEVICES
These are secondary storage devices that complement the primary memory (main memory). They are used to
store information for longer periods. Some of the examples include: Magnetic disks, Magnetic tapes, Optical
disks and Solid State Technology.

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OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced after processing.

Figure 1: Output Devices

There are two forms of output

- Softcopy – refers to the intangible output mainly displayed on the screen or through devices like speakers.
- Hard copy – refers to tangible output produced on papers e.g. by printers, plotters etc.
Examples of output devices include:
- Monitors, printers, speakers, graph plotters etc.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF A COMPUTER

The five basic functions done by the computer can be identified as follows:
1. Input or inserting data and instructions
Input can be defined as inserting data and instructions needed for a computer using the keyboard, mouse,
scanning devices, graphical tablets etc.
2. Processing
The process of converting data inserted to the computer to information as required can be defined as
processing. The processor (central processing unit) is used to manipulate data.
3. Output or retrieving data or information
Giving the processed data and information to the external forces is done under output, through computer
screen, projector, printer, speakers.
4. Storing data or information
Data and information are stored in a way that they can be reused later as
required. This is done under storing using secondary storage devices such as flash disks, DVDs, SD cards etc.
5. Controlling of devices and functions
The functions of a computer system and its various devices should be controlled properly. Under controlling
the controlling activities done by computer system are considered through software which gives
commands/instructions.

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AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED
The following are some of the areas where computers are used:

1. Supermarkets.
- Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e., to help them manage their daily
activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been sold, and what is out of stock.
The Management is automatically alerted when a particular item or items are running out of stock and need
to be reordered.
- For calculating customer’s change.

- For production of receipts.

- It can be used as a barcode reader.

2. Industries.

The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. They are used:

 To monitor and control industrial processes. The industries use remote controlled devices called Robots. A
Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but performs tasks that are unpleasant, dangerous, and
tedious to be done by human beings.

 For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.

 By companies as a competitive tool. E.g., they are used to assist in defining new products & services.
3. Banks

Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:

 To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines called Automated Teller
Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit & withdrawal services.

 For processing of Cheques.

 For preparation of Payrolls.

 For better record keeping and processing of documents.

 To provide electronic money transfer facilities.

4. Process control.

Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control chemical & mechanical
processes. The computers are usually loaded with specialized programs & each computer is designed to do a
specific job.

5. Hospitals.

Computers are used in hospitals:

 To keep & retrieve patient’s medical records.

 For automatic diagnosis of diseases like Cancer, electro-cardiogram screening & monitoring.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables physicians to properly
diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy.
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  In medical equipments, e.g. blood pressure monitors, blood analyzers, etc.

 To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).

 To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour, thus reducing the
transportation of patients & professionals.

6. Offices.

 For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.

 Production of documents.
 Keeping of records.

7. Government Institutions.

Computers are used in government ministries & agencies:

 To store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work within the Civil service.
If computers were not used, the large number of files in government registries would make information
recovery extremely difficult.

 To produce bills & statements.

8. Education.

Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and teaching using computers is
referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Teaching (CAT).

 Computers are used in learning institutions (schools & colleges) as teaching aids, i.e. to help in teaching
various subjects.

E.g., they are used to demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics using a special
program that can illustrate them on the screen through a process called Simulation.

 To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the Open University Concept.

 To analyze academic data.

 Computers are used in Aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to monitor the control
movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to physically change the environment so that the
pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aircraft.

9. Research.

Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:

 Scientists to analyse their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.

 Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.

 Computers have greatly assisted in space exploration.

 They are used to study the movement of stars.

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  They have made manned & unmanned space exploration possible – they are used to launch space
vehicles and monitor the flights & activities both onboard and around them.

10. Communication industry.

The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the transmission and reception of
messages very fast and efficient.

 They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.

 For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to a computer network.

11. Transport industry.

Computers are used in:

 Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.

 Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.

 Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets & communication.

 Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;

 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar equipment.
 Making reservations (booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.

12. Police (Law enforcement agencies).

 Computers are widely used in fighting crime. The Police use computers to keep databases on fingerprints
and also analysed them.

 The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis, which help them to arrest
traffic offenders and criminals.

- The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other identification details helps law
enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.

13. Defence.

 Computers are used in electronic news gathering, efficient communication, detecting and tracking of
targets; in radar systems, warning systems & in guided missile systems.
 Computers are used in military defence equipments, e.g. Fighter jets, Rockets, Bombers, etc.

14. Multimedia applications.

 Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.

The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running slide shows & digital
video clips taken using a Camcorder. An overlaid voice is used to describe the product.

 Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.

 In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound & digital video clips,
which make games more realistic.

 In Education & Training, Multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types of subjects.
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15. Domestic and Entertainment systems.

Computers are used at homes:

 For watching movies, playing music and computer games.

 For storing personal information.
 For calculating and keeping home budgets.
 For shopping purposes. They provide people with lists of shopping items as well as their prices. They also
provide electronic money transfer facilities.

 In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.

16. Library services.

Computers can be used in a library:

- To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of books and other library
materials.
- To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
- For research purposes - searching for information materials online.

COMPUTER PORTS
These are slots that allow interface cables and digital devices connect to the computer system unit.

 HDMI: Transmits high-definition audio and video signals. You can use HDMI to connect your computer
to a TV or other multimedia device.
 Ethernet: Provides a fast and reliable internet connection. Ethernet ports look similar to telephone or
modem ports, but are slightly wider.

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 USB: A standard port that allows you to connect and power many devices, including keyboards, mice,
printers, and external drives.
 Display Port: A technologically advanced display connection that can support 4K resolution on a single
monitor.
 Serial port: A physical interface that allows you to transfer data between devices, such as a computer
and a printer.
 VGA: A standard interface used to connect a computer to a monitor, projector screen, or signage
display.
 DVI: Transmits digital video signals between a computer and a monitor.
 PS/2: A connector that connects peripheral devices like a keyboard or mouse.
Computer ports are important because they allow you to expand your computer's functionality and connect to
a wide range of external devices.

PRACTICAL HANDS-ON SKILLS

Procedure for turning/off a computer

Once you turn on the computer, it automatically goes through a process of self-test and preparation for use. This
process is called bootup or booting.
Types of Booting
- There are 2 types of booting, namely;
1. Cold booting - This happens when a computer that was originally off is switched on by pressing the power
button on the system unit.
2. Warm booting - is the process of restarting a computer that was already on/running. This happens when a
computer that was originally on is forced to restart by pressing the Restart button on the System unit or by
pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard (Ctrl+Alt+Del).
 In Windows operating systems, one can use the Restart option on the Shutdown dialog box to perform a
warm boot.
 Once you turn on the computer, your may hear sound of the cooler fan running. A few lines of text start
scrolling up on the screen. This process is referred to as Power-On-Self-Test (POST)..

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  POST prepares the computer for use by instructing it to perform a number of diagnostic tests when
booting up. It instructs the computer to check the memory (RAM) to make sure it is operating correctly;
check the CMOS (BIOS), Hard disk controller, Floppy disk drive controller & the Keyboard.
2. Warm booting - is the process of restarting a computer that was already on/running. This happens when a
computer that was originally on is forced to restart by pressing the Restart button on the System unit or by
pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard (Ctrl+Alt+Del).
 In Windows operating systems, one can use the Restart option on the Shutdown dialog box to perform a
warm boot.
 Once you turn on the computer, your may hear sound of the cooler fan running. A few lines of text start
scrolling up on the screen. This process is referred to as Power-On-Self-Test (POST)..
 POST prepares the computer for use by instructing it to perform a number of diagnostic tests when
booting up. It instructs the computer to check the memory (RAM) to make sure it is operating correctly;
check the CMOS (BIOS), Hard disk controller, Floppy disk drive controller & the Keyboard.

- The process of switching of a computer.

- A procedure is followed when shutting down the computer. If the procedure is not followed or adhered to,
then loss of data, damage to programs and some computer components may get damaged.
- The following procedure can be followed when turning off a computer with windows operating system:
i. Ensure programs are properly stored (saved).
ii. Close all programs currently running.
iii. Click start button. A menu appears.
iv. Click Turn Off Computer or Shut Down.
v. A message box (dialog box) appears. Choose Turn Off/ Shut down.

The mouse skills/Techniques

Common mouse operations/actions

1. Pointing: Point means positioning the mouse pointer over a particular word or object on the screen.
2. Clicking: The action of pressing down the mouse button (usually the left one) and releasing it once in
order to select an object or command. The term click comes from the fact that pressing and releasing most
mouse buttons makes as a clicking sound.
3. Right-clicking: Clicking of the right mouse button. In Microsoft windows, right-clicking often produces
a ‘pop-up’ menu that offers/provides a list of options the user can select. This list of commands is called
shortcut menu or case-sensitive menu. It is called case-sensitive menu because the commands on it apply
to the right-clicked object.
4. Double-clicking: The action of clicking the mouse button twice in rapid/quick succession. Double
clicking carries out an action such as starting an application or opens a folder.
5. Drag and drop: It refers to the action of clicking and holding down the mouse button while moving the
mouse (drag), and then releasing the mouse button (drop). This moves the object (for example a folder) or
selected text to a new position. Normally, the left mouse button is used for drag and drop.

KEYBOARD AND MOUSE SKILLS

- The Keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a typewriter. It contains the usual range of
alphabetic characters (A – Z), digits 0 – 9, and other symbols frequently used to represent data items.
However, it has some command keys for giving special instructions to the computer.
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 - The first typing keys of a typical computer keyboard are QWERTY.
- Most Keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 5 different groups/categories: -
1. Alphanumeric/Typing keys
2. Function keys
3. Cursor movement & Editing keys
4. Special purpose/special operation keys
5. Numeric keypad keys
1. Typing /Alphanumeric keys:
- These keys include the letter keys (A to Z, numbers 1,2…0 and other special symbols eg ?,#,&etc.) which
are generally laid out in the same style that was common in typewriters.
2. Numeric keypad keys
- Numeric keys are located on the right hand side of the keyboard. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys
that are laid out in the same configuration used by adding machines and calculators. It also contains
arithmetic signs such as addition (+), Multiplication (*), Subtraction (-), Division (/).
- The numbers on the keypad can only be used when the Num Lock is on.
3. Function keys
- The function keys (F1-F12) are arranged in a row along the top of the keyboard and could be assigned
specific commands by the current application or the operating system.
- They are used for frequently occurring tasks in various programs in the computer.
4. Control keys(Cursor Movement & Editing keys)
- These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes for directional arrow keys that are arranged in
between typing keys and the numeric keypad.
- These keys allow the user to move the cursor on the display area one space at a time in either an up, down,
left or right direction. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt) and Esc .
- The windows keyboard also consists of
- Two windows or start key

- Application key

5. Special purpose keys

• Used in combination with other keys to give certain commands to a computer. Examples include Enter,
Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Spacebar, Tab and Print Screen.
• Extra Keys
• Newer keyboards sometimes have shortcut keys above the F Keys. These might include “Power,” “Sleep
Mode,” “Calculator,” “My Computer” and “Web.” Some also include media controls for movies and
music.

The Keyboard layout

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FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
1. Memory Management

Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. E.g.

 Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

2. File Management

A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may contain
files and other directions.

An Operating System does the following activities for file management −

 Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known as file
system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.

3. Processor Management

In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how much
time. This function is called process scheduling

4. Device Management

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An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the following activities
for device management

 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.

5. Handling errors when they occur and using corrective routines where possible.
6. Protecting hardware, software and data from improper use.
7. Communication control between computers (terminals) through the use of monitor commands and other
responses. It allows the communication devices to be used by the user.
8. Generates a complete record of what has happened during an operation . Some details of this log may be
stored for logging and accounting purposes.

COMPUTER INTERNET CONNECTION OPTIONS

 Mobile Networks/Data Plans
 Wireless Hotspots
 Cabled (Ethernet)

Definition of Internet terminologies

- Internet: it can be defined as an interconnection of millions of devices that are connected for the purpose of
communication and sharing information. It can also be termed as a network on networks.
- Computer network: it is an interconnection of two or more devices that are connected together for
communication and sharing of resources over telecommunication infrastructure. Computers use set down
rules and protocols to communicate and in transfer of data.
- Internet service provider (ISP): this is an organization (company) that provides the service of connecting
internet users to the world. Examples of ISPs in Kenya include Safaricom, Airtel, Telecom Kenya and many
other providers.
Components of a computer network
An organization computer network can be as simple or complex network depending with the number of users,
device connected and the type of user that are in the organization. Below is basic LAN networking components.
LAN Networking Components

1. Router: is a networking device that is used to connect the local network to other networks like internet. Just
like the name suggest it is used to route the message from within the LAN to the destination using the best
and fastest route.
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2. Bridge: it is used to logically divide a large LAN it small manageble networks. Each section of network can
be managed separately
3. Hub: it acts as a central point where divices can be connected to link each other. It broadcast the received
signl to all connected devices.
4. Network switch: just like Hub it act as a central connection point for devices. But unlike hub switch doesn’t
broadcast the signal rather it is intelligent enough to forward the signal to the desitination device on the
network.
5. Server Computer: it is a powerfull computer that is used to server and manage other computer and devices
within the network.
6. Client: this can be any end user device such as personal computer, laptop, smartphone etc that are connected
to the network.
7. Repeater: when signal are moving long distance they can become weak and they need a boost. Repeater is
used to regenerate and resend the signal to the final destination device.
8. Access Point: it is a network device that is used to broadcast signal that can be used by wireless connected
devices.
9. Transimission media: the media that are used can either be cables or wireless signal such as radio signal.

How the internet works

- Internet being an interconnection of millions of device it requires an organized system to ensure these devices
connect and communicate to each other effectively. For internet to work it requires the hardware component
and the protocols that should be followed.
- The hardware includes devices like computers, mobile phones, laptop and many others that mostly act as the
client devices. Client devices are ones that request information and data from a more powerful computer called
computer server.
- A computer server is a much more powerful computer than your personal computer that is loaded with data that
other devices can access.
- Other hardware device that makes internet components includes modem, router cables and all other related
hardware.
- The next components required are protocols. These are rules and methods that each device requires to
communicate over the internet should follow and meet. Just like human requires a common language to
communicate and understand each other the protocols create a common language for all devices. Without
protocols no communication can happen.
- There are 2 main protocols that are used over the internet: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet
Protocol (IP) which is grouped to form TCP/IP.

- After the protocol next is each computer is given an address to ensure the message is delivered to the right
device. Devices are assigned an address called IP address. There are 2 types of address that are used;
1. IP4
2. IP6
Note // currently the most common is IP4.

How message/ information is transferred from one device to next over internet
- Assuming you require to login to your Facebook account. First ensure your device has internet access. Automatically
when connected to the internet you device is assigned a temporally IP address. When you send a request to Facebook
server computer your computer uses relevant protocols with the connectivity from you ISP. The ISP directs (route) your
message to the next device until the message is delivered to Facebook server.
- The Facebook server recognizes your computer by the use of IP address your computer was assigned. The server sends
back the reply message back to your computer and that how you are able to login to your Facebook account.
Uses of Internet – Applications Areas
Internet in today’s world it is used in all sectors of life
The following are some of the uses Internet:
1. Electronic Commerce
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Many people are actively using the Internet to do business on the Internet. The use of the Internet in E-commerce
can be used in a number of ways;
a) Electronic Store
It is a Website that lists all the products or services a business wishes to sell, thus enabling customers to
purchase them by using the Internet itself. E-store sites provide physical goods and services.
b) Electronic Marketing
It focuses on the products or services of one company with aim of increasing sales. This type of site
supports the sales process, but does not make actual sales. The goal is to attract and keep customers.
c) Customers Service sales
This provides a variety of information for customers after they have purchased a product or service to
allow customer’s access most commonly needed information 24 hrs.
2. Electronic mail (e-mail)
This is a technology that enables users to electronically send and receive messages over the internet. Each user is
assigned a user account that can be used to identify where the email will be delivered. Emails are cheap ways to
communicate.
3. Online chatting
This is where user can send message and reply in real time. Today we have many chatting platform such as
WhatsApp, telegram etc. chatting can be made through a text, audio or even video.
4. Video Conference services
Internet offers platform that user can hold virtual online meeting that can accommodate more than 2 people
communicating at the same time. The platform can be used for virtual meeting, virtual classroom that can
accommodate over 500 user at the same time.
5. Entertainment (Games, Music and Movies)
Internet user can play computer games, listen to music and even watch movies over the internet. It has offered
users a variety of choices that was not possible without internet. Platform such as YouTube and Netflix are some
of the area users can get movies and music
6. Downloading of programs
Internet offers user a place to download freeware or open source programs that people can use on their devices

Internet connectivity requirements

For a user to be able to connect to the internet they require the following:
1. Device/computer/client
This is the device that user will use to connect to the internet.
2. Modem
A Modem is a device that enables you to connect to the Internet, and access information. From the transmitting
device (sender), it translates computer information (which is in digital form) into analogue form (the form that
can transmit over telephone lines/cables) a process is called Modulation.
On the receiving device (receiver), it translates the information back into digital form (a form that your computer
can understand); a process called Demodulation.
3. Transmission media - Cables/connectivity
This is the method that user is connected/link to the ISP. It can be trough Dial-up, wireless or satellite
4. Internet Service Provider (ISP)
It is a commercial organization (or a company) that provides Internet connections along with a set of support
services at a fee. The company uses their internet infrastructure to link user to the internet. Other requirements
may include routers, cables, browsers and internet software.

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Impacts of using the Internet
Internet has impacted every sector in our society today. From security to agriculture internet has in one way or
another affected all those areas. The impact can be categorized into 2 main classes: positive and negative impacts.

Positive impacts
1. Speed of communication
Internet has increased the communication speed to the point that people can have live chat and even video chat.
Before internet communication was either through a letter or physically going to deliver the message.
2. Cost of communication
Internet has reduced the cost of communication to small charges that people have to pay to the ISP to be
connected to the internet. People don’t need to travel to deliver the message they can connect to the internet from
ISP and communicate to each other.
3. Paperless environment
With internet people don’t need to print letter or even picture since they can view and reply digitally. This has
reduced the use of paper.
4. Global village
With internet and social media platform the world has reduced to a small village where people can know and
follow what happening in the neighbouring countries in real time.

Negative impacts
1. Cyber bulling
Internet can be used to harass and intimidate other people by using race, body shaming and other form of online
harassment. Some of the bullying has led to people harming self or others, committing suicide, depression and
many other societal issues.
2. Internet addiction
Internet can be addictive in the sense that people over spend time on different platforms. Users are afraid of
missing out on what is going on social media platforms hence they are always on social media, if they miss even
for few minutes they feel that they are left out. Internet addiction is becoming a reality on today world of fast
internet speed.
3. Scams
Internet is used to scam people and steal either their identity or even material things. Many companies recruit new
employee over the internet and scammer can use that opportunity to scam people who are not keen.
4. Electronic gambling
Many users are being addicted to online gambling and hence losing money and other variables. Internet offers a
platform to conduct even illegal gambling which users may not be aware of.
5. Privacy issues
With social media where people post their life activities it leads to reduced privacy. Someone may be stocked
online by predators who may harm them, their children, relatives or friends. People should be careful what they
post on social media since you cannot control who views your content most of the time.

MECHANISMS FOR STORING FILES

Secondary storage devices and media are classified based on some of the following:
 Principles of operation.
 Uses
 Portability, removable and/or fixed.
 Technology used to store and retrieve data as magnetic, optical, Magneto-optical and solid state.

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Classification of Storage Devices

1. Magnetic tapes
- It’s a storage device where data is sequentially accessed and processed. It is made of a plastic ribbon coated
with magnetized material such as iron oxide or chromium dioxide. The tape ribbon itself is stored in reels or a
small cartridge or cassette.

2. Magnetic Disks
- Magnetic disks are the most widely used and popular direct-access secondary storage devices.
- A magnetic disk comprises a thin piece of plastic/metal circular plate/platter, which is coated with magnetic
oxide layer.

- Data is represented as magnetized spots on a disk. A magnetized spot represents 1 (bit) and the absence of a
magnetized spot represents a 0(bit).
- Types of Magnetic Disks High Capacity Floppy disk
Floppy disk/Diskette Laser Servo 120 SuperDisk (LS-120):
Hard disk: Jaz disk

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3. Optical storage
- An optical storage system consists of a rotating disk, which is coated with a thin metal or some other material
that is highly reflective. Laser technology is used for recording/reading data on the disk. Due to the use of
laser beam technology, optical disks are also known as laser disks or optical laser disks.

-
- An optical disk has to be mounted on an optical disk drive, before it can be used from reading or writing of
information. An optical disk drive contains all the mechanical, electrical and electronic components for
holding an optical disk, and for reading and writing information on to it.
- Types of Optical Disks
Compact disk
Digital versatile disk
Blue-ray disk
4. Magneto-Optical Disk
- These disks use a hybrid of magnetic and optical technologies, employing laser beam to read data on the disk,
while additionally needing a magnetic field to write data.
- A magneto-optical disk drive is so designed that an inserted disk will be exposed to a magnet on the label side
and the laser beam on the opposite side.

5. Solid-state storage - A non-volatile employ integrated circuits rather than mechanical, magnetic or optical
technology. They are referred to as solid state because they do not have movable parts.

6. Optical card - A form of optical storage in which the medium is in credit-card form, intended for uses similar
to those of a magnetic-stripe card but with much higher capacity (several megabytes)

7. Optical Tape.
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- This resembles the structure of a magnetic tape; but optical technology is used to record data into it.

COMPUTER EXTERNAL DEVICE MANAGEMENT

- Device management is the act and skill of overseeing the installation, operation, and upkeep of a computer or
network. It's a wide term that refers to a multitude of administrative tools and actions that are beneficial in
keeping a PC or network working smoothly.

What are external devices?

- External devices are hardware components that are connected to a computer but are not housed within its case.
- Examples include monitors, keyboards, mice, printers, external hard drives, USB drives, network adapters, and
modems.
Why is external device management important?
1. Security: External devices can be a potential entry point for malware and viruses. Device control measures
can help mitigate these risks.
2. Data Protection: Protecting data stored on external devices is crucial, especially when dealing with sensitive
information. Encryption and access control can help ensure data confidentiality.
3. Network Security: Uncontrolled access to external devices can pose risks to a network, potentially allowing
unauthorized access or data exfiltration.
4. Smooth Functionality: Ensuring that external devices are properly installed, configured, and maintained is
essential for a seamless user experience.
5. Device Control: Device control allows you to manage and control the access and usage of external devices
connected to computers, protecting devices and networks from malware and data exfiltration.

Key aspects of external device management:

1. Device Allocation:
Assigning appropriate hardware resources to different processes or applications as needed.
2. Device Initialization: Initializing newly connected devices to make them accessible to the operating system
and applications.
3. Device Drivers: Software programs that enable the computer to communicate with and control the hardware
components or peripherals attached to it. They are:
open and close device drivers
communicate with device drivers
control and monitor device drivers
write and install device drivers
4. USB Encryption: Protecting data inside removable storage by forcing automatic encryption.
5. Device Manager: A component of the Microsoft Windows operating system that allows users to view and
control the hardware attached to the computer.
6. USB Device Management & Control: Monitoring and restricting the usage of USB devices within a
network to protect from insider threats.

What are the four main functions involved in device management?

1. Monitoring the state of each device, applying current policies to decide which processes will receive a device
and for how long, allocating and dealing to locating devices at the process and job levels are the four primary
responsibilities.
2. Keeps track of the status of all devices, which requires special mechanisms. E.g. Unit Control Block (UCB).
3. Deciding on policy to determine who gets a device, for how long, and when. There are three basic techniques
for implementing the policies of device management:
[Link] - a technique whereby a device is assigned to a single process.
[Link] - a technique whereby a device is shared by many processes.
[Link] - a technique whereby one physical device is simulated on another physical device.
4. Allocation - physically assigning a device to process.
5. De allocation may be done on either a process or a job level.
Techniques for Device Management:

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 Three major techniques are used for managing and allocating devices:
a. Dedicated Devices: A dedicated device is allocated to a job for the job’s entire duration. Some
devices lend themselves to this form of allocation.
It is difficult, for example, to share a card reader, tape, or printer.
b. Shared Devices: Some devices such as disks, drums and most other Direct Access Storage Devices
(DASD) may be shared concurrently by several processes. Several processes can read from a single
disk at essentially the same time. Process request is to be satisfied first based on (1) a priority list or
(2) the objective of achieving improved system output.
c. Virtual Devices: Some devices that would normally have to be dedicated (e.g., card readers) may
be converted into shared devices through techniques such as spooling.
For example, spooling program can read and copy all card input onto a disk at high speed.

What is device control?

- It refer to the ability to manage and restrict the use of external devices connected to a computer, including USB
drives, printers, and other peripherals, often implemented through security policies.

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START MENU COMMANDS AND DESKTOP MANIPULATION
The Start menu provides access to every program installed on the computer. To open the Start menu, click the the
Start menu button at the bottom-left corner of the screen or press the Windows key on the keyboard.

Frequently Used Programs

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In Windows 7 and older operating systems, the most frequently used programs are listed in the left section of the
Start menu, with the folder All Programs near the bottom-left corner. The All Programs folder leads to every
program installed on the computer. Windows 10 does not have the All Programs folder, but instead lists all
programs on the left section of the start menu, with the most used at the top.

Control Panel

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The Start menu also provides access to Control Panel, a settings program that allows you to change the
computer’s settings. In Windows 7 and older, Control Panel is labeled Control Panel on the right section of the
Start menu, while in Windows 10 it is represented by a gear icon on the left above the Start button.

The Start menu also provides a search text box or search button. Press the search button or type a word in the
search box to search the computer for a program or file. (In Windows 10, the search box is not visible, but typing
will trigger a search for what is being typed.)

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PRACTICE QUESTION
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Open a Program
Like dialog menus, the Start menu also can use the > shorthand in instructions for navigating. For example, in
Windows 7, the snipping tool is at Start>All Programs>Accessories.

Shutting Down
You can also use the Start menu to turn your computer off. In Windows 7 and older, the power button is usually
marked Shut Down near the right corner of the Start menu. In Windows 7, clicking the arrow to the right of the
Shut Down button gives you additional options. In Windows 10, the power button is a power icon located on the
left directly above the Start menu button. Clicking it will also provide additional options.

Windows 7 Windows 10

A Look at Some Shut Down Options

Not every shut down option is available on every version of Windows, but here are some common shut down
options and what they mean.
 Switch user: Switch between user accounts.
 Log off: Logs you out of the computer. The computer is still on, but programs are closed and you must
enter your password to use the computer again.
 Lock: Locks the computer. You will not be logged out, and programs will still be running, but you must
enter your password to use the computer again.
 Restart: Logs you out of the computer, closes all programs, shuts down Windows, turns the computer off,
then turns the computer back on and restarts Windows. You will have to enter your password to use the
computer again.
 Shut down: Logs you out of the computer, closes all programs, shuts down Windows, and turns the
computer off.
 Sleep: This is sort of like pausing the computer. The screen will go dark, and you will be unable to use the
computer until you wake it up by shaking the mouse or pressing a key on the keyboard. The computer will
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appear to be off. However, what is actually happening is that the computer will go into a low-power state.
It will still be on, and programs will still be running, but the computer will use considerably less power.
This is useful because waking the computer from sleep is much quicker than waiting for the computer to
turn on and boot up Windows. By default, shutting your laptop lid will put the computer to sleep, and
reopening the lid will wake the computer up.

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