Part 1: Understanding Basic Wireless Theory
What is a Wireless Signal?
• Wireless signals move as electromagnetic (EM) waves through the air.
• These waves are generated by an antenna when it sends alternating current
(AC).
• The wave consists of electric and magnetic fields that move together and
are perpendicular to each other.
• They don’t go in just one direction—they spread in all directions like a
sphere.
Frequency – The Heart of Wireless Signals
• A frequency is how many full cycles a signal makes in 1 second.
• One cycle = signal going up and down one time.
• Measured in Hertz (Hz):
o 1 kHz = 1,000 Hz
o 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz
o 1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 Hz
Frequency Spectrum
• The whole range of frequencies is called the spectrum.
• Radio Frequencies (RF) range from 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
• RF includes:
o AM/FM radio
o TV signals
o Microwave
o Radar
o Wi-Fi
Wireless LAN Bands
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Two major frequency bands used in Wi-Fi:
• 2.4 GHz Band: 2.400 – 2.4835 GHz
• 5 GHz Band: 5.150 – 5.825 GHz (has 4 smaller bands)
Channels
• The frequency band is divided into channels.
• Each channel has a specific center frequency.
• For example, 2.4 GHz band has 14 channels.
• Channels can overlap, which can cause interference if not spaced apart
correctly.
Bandwidth
• Bandwidth = width of frequency space needed for the signal.
• A spectral mask defines the limits of a signal and ignores anything outside.
• Example: a 20 MHz channel only listens within 20 MHz.
Overlapping Channels
• If channels are too close, signals overlap, causing interference.
• We use non-overlapping channels to avoid this.
Phase
• Phase is about the timing of waves.
• In-phase: two waves match.
• Out-of-phase: one wave is shifted (e.g., delayed).
• Waves add if in phase, but cancel each other out if 180° out of phase.
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Wavelength
• Wavelength (λ) = the distance a wave travels in one cycle.
• As frequency increases, wavelength gets shorter.
• RF waves travel at speed of light, slightly slower in air.
RF Power & dB (Decibel)
• Power = signal strength, usually measured in watts (W) or milliwatts
(mW).
• Decibel (dB) compares two power levels using logarithms.
dB Laws:
Power Change dB Value
Equal power 0 dB
×2 power +3 dB
÷2 power -3 dB
×10 power +10 dB
÷10 power -10 dB
Example of dB Computation
• If power changes from 5 mW to 200 mW:
o Double 5 → 10 (+3 dB)
o Double 10 → 20 (+3 dB)
o Multiply by 10 → 200 (+10 dB)
o Total: +16 dB
EIRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power)
• EIRP = Transmit Power – Cable Loss + Antenna Gain
• It shows the real power coming from the antenna.
• Link Budget = total power along the path from transmitter to receiver.
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Free Space Path Loss
• Even without obstacles, RF signals lose strength over distance.
• Energy spreads out in all directions like a balloon expanding.
• Loss increases with:
o More distance
o Higher frequency
Receiver Power Levels
• RSSI (Received Signal Strength Indicator): Measures signal power (0–
255)
• Sensitivity Level: Minimum signal strength needed for clear communication
• Noise Floor: Average noise level
• SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) = Signal strength - Noise level
o Higher SNR = better communication
Part 2: Carrying Data Over a Wireless Signal
Modulation
• Modulation = Changing the carrier signal to carry data (1s and 0s).
• We can change:
o Frequency
o Phase
o Amplitude
• At the receiver, demodulation recovers the original data.
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Modulation Schemes
Spread Spectrum Techniques:
1. DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) – used in 2.4 GHz band
o Spreads signal across wider bandwidth
o More resistant to interference
2. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) – used in both 2.4
& 5 GHz
o Divides the channel into many subcarriers
o Uses QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) to send data
efficiently
Wi-Fi Standards Summary
Standard Band Max Data Rate Channel Width
802.11b 2.4 GHz 11 Mbps 22 MHz
802.11g 2.4 GHz 54 Mbps 22 MHz
802.11a 5 GHz 54 Mbps 20 MHz
802.11n Both 600 Mbps (max) 20 or 40 MHz
802.11ac 5 GHz 3.4 Gbps (max) 20–160 MHz
802.11ax Both 9.6 Gbps (max) 20–160 MHz
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Advanced Wireless Techniques
MIMO (Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output)
• Uses multiple antennas for both transmitting and receiving
• More antennas = more data streams = higher speed
Spatial Multiplexing
• Different data sent on each antenna at the same time
• Needs strong signal processing
• Both devices must support the same number of spatial streams
Transmit Beamforming
• Transmits same signal from different antennas but adjusts the phase
• So they combine perfectly at the receiver
Maximal-Ratio Combining (MRC)
• Receiver uses multiple antennas
• Combines different signal copies to get the best version of the data
Dynamic Rate Shifting (DRS)
• As distance increases, data rate drops to maintain connection
• Closer = higher data rate; farther = lower rate
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