4/23/2024

Adama Science and Technology University

School of Civil Engineering and Architecture
Department of Water Resources Engineering

Hydraulics (WREN 2208)

Prepared by:
SAMUEL KASSA

May, 2022

Course Content

Dimensional Introduction
Properties Basics of to
Hydrostatics Fluid Fluid Closed Analysis and
of Fluid Kinematics
Dynamics Conduit Model- Boundary
Flow Studies Layer Theory

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Chapter One: Properties of Fluids

Introduction
Density
Specific weight
Specific volume & Specific gravity
Viscosity
Surface tension and Capillarity
Vapour pressure

Introduction

▪There are three states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases.

Fluid = gas +liquid

▪ Distinction between solid and fluid?

✓ Solid: can resist an applied shear by deforming.
✓ Fluid: deforms continuously under applied shear.

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FLUIDS

What is a fluid?

▪ A fluid is a substance in the gaseous or liquid form

▪ A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing.
▪ A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously or
flows when subjected to shear stresses of any
magnitude.
▪ Shear stress: shear force divided by area
▪ Shear force: the component of force tangent to a
surface

FLUIDS

Liquids Gases
Generally incompressible Readily compressible

Possesses a definite volume Expand to completely fill space

Liquids pours out (viscous) Gas escapes container

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Fluid Mechanics vs. Hydraulics

• Both deals with the fluid

• Fluid Mechanics: is study of liquids and gasses at rest (statics) and in

motion(dynamics)
• Hydraulics: is the branch of engineering science, which deals with water
(at rest or in motion)

Engineering Applications:
• Hydraulic Structures (Dams, canals, weir and reservoirs etc.)
• Water supply pipelines
• Machinery (Pumps, turbine etc)

Mechanics

Rigid Body Deformable Fluid

Mechanics Body Mechanics Mechanics

Incompressible compressible

Hydro Mechanics Aero Mechanics

Hydrostatics

Hydro Aero statics

Kinematics
Hydro Aero Dynamics
Dynamics

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Properties of Fluids

Density (Mass Density): is the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume.

• It is denoted by 𝜌 (rho)

• SI unit of density is kg/m3

• Mathematically, mass density is written as:

𝑀 Where,
𝜌= M = mass (kg)
𝑉
V = volume (m3)

Density

• For water at 4oc and standard pressure (i.e. 760 mm of mercury), 𝜌=1000
kg/m3

• Mercury, Hg =13,600 kg/m3,

• Air =1.29 kg/m3

• Densities of liquids are nearly constant (incompressible) for constant

temperature

• E.g. Oil floats on water

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Specific Weight (Weight Density)

Specific weight: is the ratio of the weight of a fluid to its volume.

• It is denoted by 𝛾 (Gama)
• SI unit of weight density is N /m3
• Mathematically, weight density is written as:

W N  = g
= = 3 kg m kg N
V m 3
 2
= 2 2
= 3
m S m .S m
▪The specific weight of water at 4oc is 9810 N /m3

Specific Volume

• Specific Volume: is the volume of fluid occupied by a unit mass.

• It is the reciprocal of mass density

• SI unit of specific volume is m3/kg

• Mathematically, specific volume is written as:

1
𝜈=
𝜌
▪It is commonly applied to gases

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Specific Gravity (Relative density)

• Specific Gravity: is the ratio of weight density of fluid to the weight density
of standard fluid.
• For liquids, the standard fluid is pure water at 4oc
• It is dimensionless quantity & denoted by S
• Mathematically, specific gravity is written as:
 fluid  fluid
S= =
 water  water
e.g. Water Swater=1, Mercury SHg=13.6
▪ It tells us how much the given liquids is more or less denser than water
(e.g. S>1, sinks in water)

Example -1

Calculate the specific weight, specific mass, specific volume and

specific gravity of a liquid having a volume of 6 m3 and weight of
44 kN.

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Activity 1

A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of

0.952 m3. Find the glycerin’s weight, mass density, specific
volume, specific weight, and specific gravity.

Viscosity

• This is the friction force that exists inside a fluid.

• Viscosity is the property of a fluid that offers resistance to the movement of

one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of fluid.

• Viscosity is the resisting property of a fluid to shearing force.

v y
=
V B
yV
v=
B
dv V
=
dy B

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Viscosity

It is found that:
• F ~ AV / B ~ AdV / dy
• F/A ~ dV / dy
τ = μ dV / dy

• μ is the coefficient of viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or absolute

viscosity.
• The top layer causes shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while
the lower layer causes shear stress on the adjacent top layer

Viscosity

• This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with

respect to y.

ⅆ𝑢
τ=𝜇
ⅆ𝑦
• 𝜏 (Tau) is shear stress N/m2,

• 𝜇 (mu) is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2), and

• du/dy velocity of gradient or rate of shear deformation (shear strain) (radians/s)

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Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

Newton’s Law of Viscosity: it states that the shear stress on a fluid element
layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.

• Newtonian fluids obey Newton’s law of viscosity

e.g. water, kerosene, petrol, ethanol, benzene, glycerin, and mercury

• Non-Newtonian fluids do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity

e.g. blood, paint, slurries, pastes, and polymer solutions

• Viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce a unit

rate of shear strain.

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

Note
• Heavy oils have greater
viscosity than water and water
is more viscous than air
• All real fluids possess viscosity
• The SI unit of dynamic
viscosity is N.s/m2 or Pa.s.
• A smaller unit of viscosity, is
called poise (One poise=0.1
pas.s)

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Kinematics viscosity

• In many problems, concerning fluid motion the viscosity appears in this

form.
• Kinematic viscosity (ν): defined as the ratio dynamic viscosity to mass
density.
𝜇
𝑣=
𝜌 Stokes(st)=0.0001m2/s
▪ Water is a Newtonian fluid having a:
✓ Dynamic viscosity=10-3 Ns/m2
• 𝑣( nu)=Kinematic viscosity (SI
✓ Kinematic viscosity=10-6 m2/s at
unit m2/s)
20oc

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature

• The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while

the viscosity of gases increases with the increase of temperature.
• Viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and momentum
transfer.
• In liquids, the cohesive forces predominate the molecular momentum
transfer.
• With the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decrease thereby
decreasing viscosity
• With the increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer
increases, and hence viscosity increases.

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Example 2

If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by 𝑈 = 23y-y2 in

which u is velocity in m/s at a distance y meter above the plate,
determine the shear stress at y=0 and y=0.15m. Take 𝜇 =
0.863𝑁𝑠/𝑚2 .

Surface Tension and Capillarity

• Cohesion:- is the force of attraction between molecules of the same

substance.
• Adhesion:- is the force of attraction between different substances (between
solid boundary surface and liquid)

Surface Tension:- is the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid (or two
immiscible liquids).
• It is due to cohesion between particles at the free surface.
• It is the force per unit length (SI unit: N/m)
• Surface tension for water=0.073N/m (@20oC)

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Surface Tension

• E.g. needle can float on the free surface

Surface Tension

1. Surface tension on liquid droplet

𝑃 = 4𝜎
𝑑
Where, P=pressure intensity inside the droplet,
the d=diameter of droplet, 𝜎(sigma)=surface tension of the
liquid
2. Surface tension on a hollow (soap) bubble
𝑃 = 8𝜎
𝑑
3. Surface tension on liquid jet
𝑃 = 2𝜎
𝑑

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Capillarity

▪ Capillarity:- is a phenomenon of rise and fall

of a liquid surface in a small tube relative to
the adjacent general level of liquid.

▪ It is due to both adhesion and cohesion

▪ Adhesion>cohesion-capillary rise

▪ Adhesion<cohesion-capillary depression/fall

Capillarity

• The rise of water is given by:-

2 π r σ cosθ = γ π r2 h
2  cos 
h=
 r
Where, σ = Surface tension of liquid
θ = Angle of contact between the liquid and
glass tube, h=height of the liquid, r=radius of the tube,
𝛾=specific weight.
• If θ is less than 90o,
• For clean glass and water q can be assumed to be zero. the liquid is said to
For clean mercury–air–glass interface, q = 130° "wet" the solid

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Example-3

Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter

when the inside pressure is 2.5 N/m2 above atmospheric
pressure.

Example-4

The pressure outside the

droplet of water of diameter
0.04mm is 10.32 N/cm2
(atmospheric pressure).
Calculate the pressure
within the droplet if surface
tension is given as 0.0725
N/m of water.

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Example-5

Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5mm diameter

when immersed vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take
surface tensions σ = 0.0725 N/m for water and σ = 0.52 N/m for
mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is
given as 13.6 and the angle of contact = 130o.

Vapor pressure

• Vapor Pressure is a pressure applied by vapor particles on the surface of a

fluid
• Consider a liquid (water) that is confined in a closed vessel
• Vaporization occurs because of the continuous escaping of the molecules
through the free liquid surface (which depends upon the prevailing
pressure and temperature condition)
• It increases with an increase in temperature.

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Vapor pressure

• The accumulated vapor molecules in the space between the free liquid
surface and the top of the vessel, exert pressure on the liquid surface.
• If the pressure at any point in the flowing liquid becomes equal to or less
than the vapor pressure, vaporization of the liquid starts.
• A liquid having high vapor pressure evaporates more easily than a liquid
with low vapor pressure
• The saturated vapor pressure for; Water = 2.45 × 103 N/m2, mercury =
0.17 N/m2 all at 20oC
• One of the reasons that Hg is used for barometers and manometers

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