AC CIRCUITS AND RLC CIRCUITS
Study Notes — Definitions, Formulae, Worked Examples and Diagrams
NebCode
Author: Ngwa Frank Neba
I. AC Circuits
Definition of Key Terms
Before studying alternating current (AC) in detail, it is important to understand the following basic terms used
throughout this topic.
Term Meaning
Alternating Current An electric current that periodically reverses its direction and continuously changes its
(AC) magnitude with time, unlike direct current (DC) which flows in one direction only.
Direct Current (DC) A current that flows steadily in one direction only, with constant or near-constant
magnitude.
Cycle One complete repetition of the waveform pattern (e.g. one full sine wave from 0° to
360°).
Period (T) The time taken to complete one full cycle, measured in seconds (s).
Frequency (f) The number of complete cycles occurring per second, measured in hertz (Hz). f = 1/T
Angular Frequency (ω) The rate of change of phase angle, measured in rad/s. ω = 2πf
Amplitude (Peak Value) The maximum value reached by the current or voltage in a cycle.
Instantaneous Value The value of the alternating quantity (current or voltage) at any specific instant of time.
Waveform A graph showing how the instantaneous value of a quantity varies with time.
AC Current
An alternating current varies sinusoidally with time. If i(t) represents the instantaneous current at time t, then:
i(t) = Ip sin(ωt) [or i(t) = Ip sin(ωt + φ) if there is a phase difference]
where Ip is the peak (maximum) current, ω is the angular frequency and φ is a phase angle. The current rises from
zero to a maximum (Ip), falls back through zero to a minimum (−Ip), and returns to zero — this constitutes one
cycle.
AC Voltage
Similarly, an alternating voltage source produces a voltage that varies sinusoidally with time:
v(t) = Vp sin(ωt) [or v(t) = Vp sin(ωt + φ)]
where Vp is the peak (maximum) voltage. Mains electricity supplies (e.g. 240 V in many parts of Cameroon and
other countries) are AC voltages, generated by rotating coils in generators (alternators), and quoted values are
usually RMS values, not peak values.
Figure 1: A sinusoidal AC voltage waveform showing the peak voltage and RMS voltage.
Peak Voltage and Root Mean Square (RMS) Voltage
The peak voltage, Vp, is the maximum instantaneous value the voltage reaches in a cycle. Because an alternating
voltage is constantly changing, a single 'effective' value is needed to compare it with DC — this is the root mean
square (RMS) voltage.
The RMS voltage is defined as the value of the equivalent steady DC voltage that would produce the same heating
effect (same average power dissipation in a resistor) as the alternating voltage.
Vrms = Vp / √2 ≈ 0.707 Vp
Derivation (brief): Since v = Vp sin(ωt), the mean square value over a complete cycle is the average of
Vp²sin²(ωt), and the average value of sin²(ωt) over a full cycle is ½. Hence:
Vrms² = ½Vp² ⟹ Vrms = Vp/√2
Peak Current and Root Mean Square (RMS) Current
In the same way, the peak current Ip is the maximum instantaneous current, and the RMS current is the DC-
equivalent current producing the same average heating effect:
Irms = Ip / √2 ≈ 0.707 Ip
RMS values are what AC ammeters and voltmeters normally read, and what is used in AC power calculations:
P (average power) = Vrms × Irms (for a purely resistive load)
Example 1
A mains supply has a peak voltage of 339 V. Calculate the RMS voltage of the supply.
Solution:
Vrms = Vp/√2 = 339/1.414 = 239.7 V ≈ 240 V
This is why household mains supply is quoted as 240 V — this is the RMS value, not the peak value.
Example 2
An electrical appliance is rated at 240 V (RMS). Find the peak voltage it actually experiences, and the peak
current if the RMS current drawn is 5 A.
Solution:
Vp = Vrms × √2 = 240 × 1.414 = 339.4 V
Ip = Irms × √2 = 5 × 1.414 = 7.07 A
Current Rectification
Rectification is the process of converting alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) using devices called
diodes, which allow current to flow in only one direction.
(a) Half-Wave Rectification
A single diode is used, which conducts only during the positive half-cycle of the AC input and blocks the negative
half-cycle. The output is a series of positive pulses separated by gaps where the voltage is zero — a poor, highly
pulsating form of DC.
Figure 2: Half-wave rectification — only the positive half-cycles appear in the output.
Average (DC) output voltage: Vdc = Vp/π ≈ 0.318 Vp
(b) Full-Wave Rectification
Full-wave rectification uses either a centre-tapped transformer with two diodes, or (more commonly) four diodes
arranged in a bridge rectifier, so that both halves of the AC cycle contribute to the output. The negative half-cycle
is inverted rather than blocked, giving a smoother, higher-average output than half-wave rectification.
Figure 3: Full-wave rectification — both half-cycles are converted to a unidirectional output.
Average (DC) output voltage: Vdc = 2Vp/π ≈ 0.636 Vp
Example 3
An AC supply with a peak voltage of 20 V is rectified. Find the average (DC) output voltage for (a) half-wave
rectification and (b) full-wave rectification.
Solution:
(a) Half-wave: Vdc = Vp/π = 20/3.142 = 6.37 V
(b) Full-wave: Vdc = 2Vp/π = 2(20)/3.142 = 12.73 V — twice the half-wave value, and a much smoother output.
Note: In practice, a smoothing (filter) capacitor is placed after the rectifier to reduce the ripple in the output
further, giving output closer to a steady DC voltage.
III. RLC Circuits
Definition of Terms
Term Meaning
Resistor (R) A component that opposes the flow of current and dissipates electrical energy as heat.
Its opposition (resistance) does not depend on frequency.
Inductor (L) A coil that opposes any change in current, storing energy in a magnetic field. It offers
an AC-dependent opposition called inductive reactance.
Capacitor (C) A component that stores energy in an electric field between two plates and opposes
changes in voltage. It offers an AC-dependent opposition called capacitive reactance.
Reactance (X) The opposition offered by an inductor or capacitor to the flow of AC. Unlike
resistance, reactance does not dissipate energy as heat; it only stores and releases it.
Impedance (Z) The total combined opposition to current flow in an AC circuit, arising from resistance
and net reactance together. Measured in ohms (Ω).
Phase Angle (φ) The angle by which the voltage leads or lags the current in an AC circuit, caused by the
presence of reactive components (L and/or C).
Power Factor cos φ — the ratio of true (useful) power to apparent power in an AC circuit.
Resonance The condition in an RLC circuit where the inductive and capacitive reactances are
equal, resulting in maximum current and minimum impedance.
An Inductor, A Resistor, and A Capacitor
Each of the three basic components behaves differently when connected to an AC supply. The table below
summarises the key relationships.
Component Phase relationship (V vs Opposition Energy behaviour
I)
Resistor (R) V and I are in phase (φ = R = V/I (constant, Dissipates energy as heat
0°) independent of frequency)
Inductor (L) V leads I by 90° XL = ωL = 2πfL Stores energy in a
magnetic field; releases it
back to the circuit
Capacitor (C) I leads V by 90° (V lags I XC = 1/(ωC) = 1/(2πfC) Stores energy in an electric
by 90°) field; releases it back to the
circuit
Notice that XL increases with frequency (an inductor opposes AC more strongly at high frequency), while XC
decreases with frequency (a capacitor opposes AC less at high frequency). This opposite frequency-dependence is
the basis of resonance in RLC circuits.
Impedance
When a resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected together (usually in series) to an AC source, their combined
opposition to current is called impedance, Z. Because XL and XC act 90° out of phase with R, they cannot simply
be added arithmetically — they combine as follows for a series RLC circuit:
Z = √[ R² + (XL − XC)² ]
The phase angle between the supply voltage and current is given by:
tan φ = (XL − XC) / R
If XL > XC, the circuit is net inductive (voltage leads current, φ positive). If XC > XL, the circuit is net capacitive
(current leads voltage, φ negative). If XL = XC, the circuit is purely resistive and this is the condition for
resonance.
Figure 4: The impedance triangle — Z is the hypotenuse of R and the net reactance X.
Figure 5: Phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit in which XL > XC (net inductive circuit).
Circuit Analysis
To analyse a series RLC circuit connected to an AC supply of RMS voltage Vrms and frequency f, the following
systematic steps are used:
– Step 1: Calculate the inductive reactance, XL = 2πfL
– Step 2: Calculate the capacitive reactance, XC = 1/(2πfC)
– Step 3: Calculate the impedance, Z = √[R² + (XL − XC)²]
– Step 4: Calculate the current, Irms = Vrms/Z
– Step 5: Calculate the voltage across each component: VR = IrmsR, VL = IrmsXL, VC = IrmsXC
– Step 6: Calculate the phase angle, φ = tan⁻¹[(XL − XC)/R]
– Step 7: Calculate the power factor, cos φ = R/Z, and the true power, P = VrmsIrms cos φ
Figure 6: A resistor, inductor and capacitor connected in series across an AC source.
Example 4
A series RLC circuit has R = 30 Ω, L = 0.2 H, C = 100 μF, connected to a 120 V (RMS), 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) XL, (b) XC, (c) Z, (d) Irms, (e) the phase angle φ, and (f) the power factor.
Solution:
(a) XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(0.2) = 62.8 Ω
(b) XC = 1/(2πfC) = 1/[2π(50)(100×10⁻⁶)] = 31.83 Ω
(c) Z = √[R² + (XL−XC)²] = √[30² + (62.8−31.83)²] = √[900 + 959] = √1859 = 43.1 Ω
(d) Irms = Vrms/Z = 120/43.1 = 2.78 A
(e) φ = tan⁻¹[(XL−XC)/R] = tan⁻¹[30.97/30] = tan⁻¹(1.032) = 45.9° (voltage leads current — net inductive
circuit)
(f) Power factor = cos φ = cos(45.9°) = 0.696 (or R/Z = 30/43.1 = 0.696)
Additional quantities: VR = IrmsR = 2.78×30 = 83.4 V; VL = IrmsXL = 2.78×62.8 = 174.6 V; VC = IrmsXC =
2.78×31.83 = 88.5 V. (Note VR, VL and VC do not add up arithmetically to 120 V because they are out of phase
— they combine as phasors: √[VR² + (VL−VC)²] = √[83.4² + 86.1²] ≈ 120 V ✓)
Resonance Frequency
Resonance occurs in a series RLC circuit when the inductive reactance exactly equals the capacitive reactance
(XL = XC). At this frequency, called the resonant frequency (f0):
– The net reactance is zero, so impedance is at its minimum value, Z = R.
– The current in the circuit is at its maximum possible value, Irms = Vrms/R.
– The circuit behaves as if it were purely resistive, so the voltage and current are in phase (φ = 0°) and the power
factor is 1.
Setting XL = XC:
2πf0L = 1/(2πf0C) ⟹ f0 = 1 / [2π√(LC)]
Example 5
For the circuit in Example 4 (L = 0.2 H, C = 100 μF), calculate the resonant frequency, and the current at
resonance.
Solution:
f0 = 1/[2π√(LC)] = 1/[2π√(0.2 × 100×10⁻⁶)] = 1/[2π√(2×10⁻⁵)] = 1/[2π(4.472×10⁻³)] = 1/(0.0281) = 35.6 Hz
At resonance, Z = R = 30 Ω, so Irms = Vrms/R = 120/30 = 4 A — greater than the 2.78 A found at 50 Hz,
confirming that current is maximum at resonance.
Figure 7: Current against frequency for a series RLC circuit — the peak occurs at the resonant frequency f0. A smaller
resistance R gives a sharper, taller resonance peak.
The sharpness of the resonance peak is described by the quality factor, Q:
Q = (1/R)√(L/C) = ω0L/R = f0 / (bandwidth)
A high Q-factor circuit (small R) has a narrow, sharp resonance peak and is highly selective — useful for tuning
to a specific frequency. A low Q-factor (large R) has a broad, flat peak.
Damping
Damping refers to the gradual loss of energy — and hence decrease in the amplitude of oscillation — in an RLC
circuit due to energy dissipated as heat in the resistance. It is most clearly seen in the transient (free) oscillations
of an RLC circuit, such as when a charged capacitor is allowed to discharge through an inductor and resistor.
The behaviour of the circuit depends on the size of the resistance compared to a critical value, and is classified
into three cases, characterised by the damping coefficient:
α = R / (2L) compared with ω0 = 1/√(LC)
Case Condition Behaviour
Underdamped α < ω0 (R small) The circuit oscillates, with the
amplitude of oscillation decreasing
exponentially with time before dying
out.
Critically damped α = ω0 The circuit returns to equilibrium
(zero) in the shortest possible time,
without oscillating.
Overdamped α > ω0 (R large) The circuit returns to equilibrium
slowly, without any oscillation.
Figure 8: The three damping regimes in an RLC circuit — underdamped, critically damped and overdamped.
A low-resistance (high-Q) RLC circuit is lightly (under-) damped and sustains oscillations for longer — it
corresponds to a sharp resonance peak. A high-resistance circuit is heavily damped and its resonance response is
broad and weak.
Application of RLC Circuits
– Radio and television tuning circuits: an RLC circuit is tuned (by varying C or L) so its resonant frequency
matches the frequency of the desired broadcast station, allowing that signal to be selected while others are
rejected.
– Filters in electronic and audio systems: RLC combinations are used to build low-pass, high-pass, band-pass
and band-stop filters that allow only certain ranges of frequency to pass, e.g. in audio crossovers for
loudspeakers.
– Oscillator circuits: RLC circuits form the frequency-determining part of oscillators used to generate AC signals
of a specific frequency.
– Power factor correction: capacitors are added to industrial AC power systems (which are usually inductive due
to motors and transformers) to bring the power factor closer to 1, reducing wasted (reactive) power and
energy losses in transmission lines.
– Impedance matching: RLC networks are used to match the impedance between a signal source and a load (e.g.
an antenna and a transmitter), maximising power transfer.
– Surge protection and damping networks: RLC combinations are used to damp out unwanted voltage/current
oscillations (transients) in switching circuits and protect sensitive equipment.