Grade 11

Subject: History

Unit 7: States, Principalities, Population Movements and

Interactions in Ethiopia (13th–mid-16th Century)

Introduction
This unit examines interrelated historical developments in the Ethiopian region and the
Horn of Africa from 1270 to the mid-16th century, part of what is generally known as the
medieval period of Ethiopian history (1270–1855). Around 1270, the Christian kingdom
gained a new ruling dynasty, the “Solomonic” dynasty, replacing the Zagwe. As long-
distance trade and Islam spread, a series of Muslim sultanates flourished along the trade
routes, while the resourceful south and west were home to peoples practicing indigenous
religions. The 16th century brought both the wars of Imam Ahmad and the great Oromo
population movement.

Learning Outcomes
• Point out the distinguishing features of the Solomonic Dynasty.

• Analyze the role of trade as a source of conflict in the medieval period Ethiopian region.

• Draw a map of the Ethiopian region showing the extent of influence of the Christian
kingdom.
• Appreciate the positive achievements of the restored Solomonic Dynasty.

7.1. The Christian Kingdom under the Restored

“Solomonic” Dynasty (1270s–1550s)

7.1.1. Restoration of the “Solomonic” Dynasty

After the Zagwe Dynasty fell to opposition from its Amhara tributary region, the local ruler
Yikuno Amlak (r. 1270–85) founded the “Solomonic” dynasty, claiming descent from
King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba through the last Aksumite king, Dil Na’od, to
portray the Zagwe as illegitimate rulers. This claim, recorded in the 14th-century Kibre
Negest (“Glory of Kings”), was accepted widely enough that every monarch until 1974
claimed descent from Yikuno Amlak — a dynasty lasting over 700 years. The capital shifted
from Lalibela in Lasta toward Lake Hayk and eventually Shewa, where it became a moving
“roving” capital.

7.1.2. Basic Features of the Christian Highland Kingdom

Under King Amde Tsiyon (r. 1314–44), the most expansionist medieval king, the Christian
highland kingdom began vigorous territorial expansion accompanied by the growth of the
Orthodox Church into Shewa, Gojjam, Begemdir, and the Lake Tana region. The
economy rested on mixed farming, and from the 14th century an Ethiopian form of
feudalism developed, with kings granting land to officials in return for service.

Between 1270 and 1529, Zeyla replaced the Red Sea coast as the main trade gateway, in a
network known as the Zeyla trade, exchanging highland cereals for lowland goods and
drawing ivory and gold from the west and southwest.

Map 7.1: Major trade routes in the Ethiopian Region, 1332–1527

The Gult System

To administer the growing empire, kings relied on a mix of hereditary chiefs and appointed
officials under the Gult system — the right to levy tribute on holders of Rist land, a
hereditary family land-use right. The Bale Gult (right-holder) collected tribute in kind, used
corvee labor, administered justice, and raised regional armies, making the Gult system a
defining feature of Ethiopian feudalism until the 1974 Revolution.

The Roving Capital

From 1270 until the founding of Gondar in 1636, the kingdom had no permanent capital;
the royal court moved among sites such as Menz, Tegulet, and Intoto in Shewa to secure
supplies, firewood, and control over rebellions. King Zer’a Ya’ekob (r. 1434–68) broke from
this pattern by founding Debre Birhan in 1454 and residing there for fourteen years.

7.1.3. Power Struggle, Consolidation, and Territorial and Religious Expansion

Succession disputes after Yikuno Amlak’s death in 1285 were resolved around 1300 with
the mountain prison-fortress of Amba Gishen (Debre Negest), where royal male
descendants were confined until its destruction by Imam Ahmad in 1540.
Amde Tsiyon incorporated Damot (1316/17), Felasha territory (1332), and Gojjam
(1323/24), then defeated the powerful Sultanate of Ifat under Sabr ad-Din I in 1332,
reducing it to tributary status. Ifat’s Walasma rulers relocated east and founded the
Sultanate of Adal around 1380, which continued resisting the Christian kingdom under
sultans Haqq ad-Din II, Sa’ad ad-Din II, and Ahmad Badlay, the last decisively defeated by
King Zer’a Ya’ekob in 1445 — the peak of Christian highland power. Decline followed
under Be’ede Mariyam (r. 1468–78), culminating in Imam Ahmad of Adal’s decisive victory
over King Libne Dingil at the Battle of Shimbra Kure in March 1529.

Religious expansion accompanied territorial growth: Abune Tekle Haymanot founded the
monastery of Debre Asbo (later Debre Libanos) and converted King Motalami of Damot to
Christianity, while Abba Iyasus Moa established the earlier monastery of Hayk Istifanos,
cementing monasticism’s central role in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

📌 Fact to Remember: A Dynasty Built on Legend.

The Solomonic dynasty's claim of descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba,
though a legend, provided the basis for over 700 years of continuous royal legitimacy in
Ethiopia.

7.2. The Expansion of Islam and the Emergence of

Muslim Sultanates

Islam reached the Ethiopian region through two routes: the Red Sea coast and the port of
Zeyla on the Gulf of Aden. While coastal settlement near the Dahlak Islands remained
limited, Zeyla became the crucial gateway for Islam’s peaceful spread inland to Harar,
eastern Shewa, Wollo, Bale, and Arsi through Arab and non-Arab Muslim merchants.

This process produced a series of sultanates along the Zeyla trade routes: Shewa, Ifat,
Fatagar, Dawaro, Darha, Bali, Hadya, Arababni, Sharkha, and Adal, sharing common
features of Muslim populations, rulers holding both religious and political power, and
economies based mainly on trade.

The Sultanate of Ifat

Founded by Umar Walasma, a contemporary of Yikuno Amlak, Ifat became the leading
sultanate under its strategic control of Zeyla trade routes before its defeat by Amde Tsiyon
in 1332.

The Sultanate of Hadya

The westernmost sultanate, ruled by Garads, reaching the Gibe River and Lake Hawasa,
Hadya was a source of political marriages, including Queen Mother Elleni, before it was
abandoned under pressure from the expanding Macha Oromo during the reign of Sertse
Dingil.
Bali, Sharkha, Dawaro, Darha, Fatagar, and Arababni
These smaller sultanates, ruled by Garads or local titles, occupied territory across present-
day Arsi and the Awash basin, each reduced to tributary status under Amde Tsiyon and
his successors, and later absorbed into Imam Ahmad’s empire in the 16th century.

The Sultanate of Adal

Founded by the militant wing of the Walasma dynasty of Ifat around 1380, centered first at
Dakar and later Harar (from 1520), Adal revived under Sultan Ahmad Badlay before his
defeat in 1445, then rose again in the 16th century under Imam Ahmad to become the
dominant power in the region.

📌 Fact to Remember: Zeyla: The Gateway of Two Faiths.

The port of Zeyla was simultaneously the main channel for the spread of Islam into the
Ethiopian interior and the central prize contested between the Christian highland
kingdom and the Muslim sultanates.

7.3. Political and Socio-Economic Conditions of the

Western, Southern and Central States in Ethiopia
Beyond the Christian kingdom and the sultanates, other states in the south and center of
the Ethiopian region were home to peoples practicing indigenous religion.

The Kingdom of Gojjam

Inhabited by the Agew ethnic group south of Lake Tana, Gojjam was reduced to tributary
status by Amde Tsiyon around 1323/24; much of its eastern territory later formed the fiefs
of Queen Elleni, who rebuilt the monastery of Mertole Mariyam.

Bizamo, Wajj, and Ganz

Bizamo, inhabited by Omotic speakers like the Shinasha, and Wajj and Ganz, near Lake
Ziway, were all reduced to tributary status under Amde Tsiyon and later overrun by the
Macha Oromo in the late 16th century.

The Kingdom of Ennarya

North of the Gojeb River, Ennarya was a major source of gold exported as far as Egypt,
Greece, and Rome, before its defeat by the Limmu Oromo led to its renaming as Limmu-
Ennarya.

The Gonga People

Speakers of Omotic languages including Kafi Noonoo and Shinasha, the Gonga peoples
built elaborate states such as Ennarya, Anfillo, Bizamo, Kafa, and Shekka (the latter two
ruled by kings titled Tato), known for their traditions of trench and stone-fortification
building.

📌 Fact to Remember: Gold From the Southwest.

The Kingdom of Ennarya's gold was so valued that it reached markets as far away as
Egypt, Greece, and Rome, showing how deeply the medieval Ethiopian region was
connected to long-distance trade.

7.4. Relationship between the Christian Highland

Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal (1520s–1559)

After decades of civil war within Adal, Emir Mahfuz rose to power and attacked the
Christian kingdom until his death at Zeyla in 1517. Leadership eventually passed to Imam
Ahmad ibn-Ibrahim al-Ghazi, known in the highlands as Gragn (“the left-handed”), who
first reconciled the warring Afar, Somali, and Harari communities before turning his
unified forces against the Christian kingdom.

In March 1529, Ahmad’s forces, aided by Yemeni musketeers, crushed King Libne Dingil’s
much larger army at the Battle of Shimbra Kure. By 1533, Ahmad controlled the southern
half of the region; by 1535, he controlled Tigray and made Aksum his northern center,
ruling from Dembiya near Lake Tana until his defeat and death at the Battle of Woyna
Dega in 1543.

Portuguese and Ottoman Involvement

As the Portuguese and Ottoman Turks competed for dominance of the Mediterranean and
Red Sea, King Libne Dingil sent John Bermudez to request military aid; Portuguese
troops under Christovao da Gama arrived in 1541 and won early victories, but Ottoman
reinforcements sent to Imam Ahmad turned the tide at Wefla, where da Gama was
captured and killed. King Gelawdewos (r. 1540–59) finally defeated and killed Imam
Ahmad at Woyna Dega in February 1543, though conflict with Adal continued until
Gelawdewos himself was killed in 1559 by Emir Nur al-Wazir.

Consequences of the Conflict

The two-decade conflict caused massive destruction of churches, monasteries, and
religious documents, severe population loss, and lasting weakness in the Christian
kingdom as its armies were destroyed and regional nobles began challenging royal
authority. Population movements mixed Muslim lowlanders into the highlands, and the
Zeyla trade was disrupted for years.

📌 Fact to Remember: A War That Reshaped a Region.

The wars between Imam Ahmad and the Christian highland kingdom drew in both the
 Ottoman Empire and Portugal, turning a regional conflict into part of a wider struggle
for control of the Red Sea.

7.5. Population Movements in the Ethiopian Region

7.5.1. The Movement of the Somali, Afar and Argoba Peoples

Conflicts between the sultanates and the Christian kingdom, along with drought and
famine, drove population movements between the 14th and 16th centuries.

The Somali
Somali sub-groups moved inland from coastal Zeyla, Berbera, Benadir, and Mogadishu
before the 16th century, later forming a significant part of Imam Ahmad’s army.

The Afar
Long settled in northeastern Ethiopia, Djibouti, and southeastern Eritrea, the Afar moved
toward the middle Awash before the 16th century and fought alongside Imam Ahmad
during his campaigns.

The Argoba
Speaking an Ethio-Semitic language, the Argoba served as agents of trade and Islamic
expansion, connected to Ifat, Harar, and Hadya, and today remain in Southern Wollo,
Northern Shewa, and Hararge.

7.5.2. The Oromo Population Movement

Speaking a language of the East Lowland Cushitic family, the Oromo began a large-scale
16th-century movement from the Bale highlands, driven by cattle population growth and
pasture shortage that pushed young herders into the Middle Awash and Ganale River
valleys.

Directions and Stages

Organized into the Borana and Barantu confederacies, the Oromo expanded rapidly after
Imam Ahmad’s death: the Borana (including Macha and Tulama) moved into central and
southwestern regions from about 1522, establishing the Odaa Nabee assembly center near
Dukam, while the Barantu (including Arsi, Karayu, and Ittu) moved northeast into the
Awash Valley, Harar, and Wollo. King Sertse Dingil won a temporary victory over the
Macha and Tulama in 1572, but could not halt their advance; the Limmu Oromo defeated
Ennarya around 1710, while Kafa successfully resisted south of the Gojeb River.

Consequences
The movement restricted the Christian kingdom to territory north of the Abay River and
reduced Adal to the walled city of Harar. Communities that peacefully joined the Oromo
were adopted through Moggassa and treated well, while resisting groups such as those in
Damot and Bizamo faced harsh treatment and displacement. Cultural exchange followed
in both directions, with some Oromo adopting Christianity or Islam and some non-Oromo
groups adopting the Gadaa system.

The Gadaa System of the Oromo

An indigenous democratic institution regulating Oromo political, economic, social, and
religious life, the Gadaa system was inscribed by UNESCO in 2016 as an Intangible World
Cultural Heritage. Individuals pass through Gadaa grades succeeding every eight years,
across a full cycle of ten grades spanning two 40-year periods.

Grade Age of Individuals

Dabale 0–8
Game-Titiko 8–16
Game-Gurgudo 16–24
Kusa 24–32
Raba-Doori 32–40
Gada 40–48

The Chaffee (Assembly) governed at local, regional, and central levels, led by the Abbaa
Bokku or Abbaa Gadaa (“father of the Gadaa”), assisted by officials including the Abbaa
Sera (chief judge) and Abbaa Duulaa (army commander); corrupt leaders could be removed
early through a process called buqqisu. Women participated through the parallel institution
of Siinqee, promoting gender equality and peacemaking, led by the Haadha Siinqee
(“mother of Siinqee”).

The system gradually declined due to the rise of powerful war leaders (Abbaa Duulaa) who
became kings (Mootii), involvement in long-distance trade, the spread of Islam, and later
missionary and imperial influence, though many Gadaa values and expressions persist in
Oromo culture today.

Moggassa and Guddifacha

Moggassa was the collective adoption of a new group into Oromo society through an oath
ceremony before the Abbaa Gadaa, granting adopted groups (Ilma Gossa) full rights, while
Guddifacha was individual adoption, treating the adopted person as a true son with full
rights.

📌 Fact to Remember: A UNESCO Heritage System.

The Oromo Gadaa system, recognized by UNESCO in 2016, offered a cyclical, elected
form of self-government with built-in checks on power centuries before many modern
democratic institutions existed.
Key Terms Glossary

• Gult: The right to levy tribute on holders of Rist land, central to medieval Ethiopian
feudal administration.
• Rist: A hereditary right to land use held by members of a family or clan.

• Garad: The royal title used by rulers of several medieval sultanates, including Hadya
and Bali.
• Walasma: The ruling dynasty of the sultanates of Ifat and later Adal.

• Zeyla Trade: The long-distance trade network centered on the port of Zeyla, key to both
the Christian kingdom's and the sultanates' economies.
• Solomonic Dynasty: The Ethiopian royal dynasty, founded in 1270 by Yikuno Amlak,
claiming descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.
• Gadaa System: The indigenous Oromo socio-political institution organizing society
into age-based grades with elected leadership.
• Chaffee: The Gadaa assembly, functioning at local, regional, and central levels.

• Moggassa: The Oromo institution of collectively adopting a new group into Oromo
society.
• Guddifacha: The Oromo institution of individually adopting a person as a full member
of the family.
• Siinqee: A parallel Oromo institution promoting women's participation and gender
equality within the Gadaa system.
Practice Exam
Unit 7: States, Principalities, Population Movements and Interactions in Ethiopia (13th–
mid-16th Century)

I. True or False
1. Yikuno Amlak founded the Solomonic dynasty in 1270.

2. The Kibre Negest recorded the legend linking the Solomonic dynasty to King Solomon
and the Queen of Sheba.
3. The Christian highland kingdom had a permanent capital city throughout the
medieval period.
4. The Gult system granted the right to levy tribute on holders of Rist land.

5. The Sultanate of Ifat was the earliest and most powerful of the medieval Muslim
sultanates.
6. Imam Ahmad defeated King Libne Dingil at the Battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529.

7. The Portuguese and Ottoman Turks both became involved in the conflict between
Adal and the Christian kingdom.
8. The Oromo population movement began from the Bale highlands.

9. The Gadaa system was inscribed by UNESCO as an Intangible World Cultural

Heritage in 2016.
10. Moggassa refers to the individual adoption of a single person into Oromo society.

II. Matching
Match each item in Column A with the correct term in Column B. Column B contains one
extra item that will not be used.

Column A Column B
1. Umar Walasma A. The Kingdom of Bizamo
2. Garad B. The Sultanate of Adal's leader
against the Christian kingdom
3. Shinasha People C. Collective adoption among the
Oromo
4. Imam Ahmad D. The Sultanate of Ifat's founder
5. Moggassa E. Title used by rulers of Bali and
Hadya
6. Yikuno Amlak F. Founder of the Solomonic dynasty
Column A Column B
7. Zer'a Ya'ekob G. Defeated Imam Ahmad at Woyna
Dega
8. Gelawdewos H. Founded Debre Birhan in 1454
I. Founder of the Gadaa system

III. Multiple Choice

1. The Solomonic dynasty was founded by:

A. Dil Na'od B. Yikuno Amlak
C. Amde Tsiyon D. Zer'a Ya'ekob

2. The legend justifying the Solomonic dynasty's legitimacy was recorded in the:
A. Futuh al-Habesha B. Kibre Negest
C. Fetha Negest D. Zena Ethiopia

3. The right to levy tribute on Rist land was known as:

A. Gult B. Moggassa
C. Chaffee D. Siinqee

4. The Christian kingdom's main trade gateway between 1270 and 1529 was the
port of:
A. Massawa B. Adulis
C. Zeyla D. Berbera

5. The most powerful medieval sultanate before its defeat by Amde Tsiyon was:
A. Adal B. Ifat
C. Hadya D. Bali

6. The Sultanate of Adal was founded by the militant wing of which dynasty?
A. Walasma B. Zagwe
C. Solomonic D. Aksumite

7. Imam Ahmad ibn-Ibrahim al-Ghazi is known in the Ethiopian highlands as:

A. Mahfuz B. Gragn
C. Nur al-Wazir D. Badlay

8. The Battle of Shimbra Kure took place in:

A. 1517 B. 1529
C. 1543 D. 1559

9. Imam Ahmad was finally defeated and killed at the Battle of:
A. Shimbra Kure B. Wefla
C. Woyna Dega D. Adwa
10. The Portuguese commander killed in battle against Imam Ahmad's forces was:
A. John Bermudez B. Christovao da Gama
C. Vasco da Gama D. Diogo Cao

11. The Oromo population movement is believed to have begun from the highlands
of:
A. Bale B. Shewa
C. Gojjam D. Wollo

12. The two main Oromo confederacies were the Borana and the:
A. Barantu B. Macha
C. Tulama D. Karayu

13. The Gadaa assembly was known as the:

A. Siinqee B. Chaffee
C. Moggassa D. Rist

14. The highest authority in Gadaa government was the:

A. Abbaa Sera B. Abbaa Duulaa
C. Abbaa Bokku (Abbaa Gadaa) D. Mootii

15. The institution promoting Oromo women's participation and gender equality
was:
A. Guddifacha B. Moggassa
C. Siinqee D. Chaffee

IV. Fill in the Blank

1. The mountain fortress used to confine royal male descendants and resolve succession
disputes was ______________.
2. The Christian kingdom's roving capital finally became permanent with the founding
of Gondar in the year ______________.
3. The ruling dynasty of the sultanates of Ifat and Adal was called ______________.

4. The Ethiopian king who defeated and killed Imam Ahmad at the Battle of Woyna
Dega was ______________.
5. The Oromo institution of individually adopting a person as a full member of the
family was called ______________.

V. Short Answer
1. Explain how the Zeyla trade served both as a unifying and a divisive force among the
states and peoples of the medieval Ethiopian region.
2. Describe the structure of the Gadaa system, including its main officials and the role
of Siinqee, and explain why the system gradually declined.