PLANET MARS
A Comprehensive Scientific & Geological Reference Guide
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, larger only than Mercury. Often
referred to as the "Red Planet" due to the prevalence of iron oxide (rust) on its surface, Mars is a terrestrial body with a thin
atmosphere, dynamic polar ice caps, extinct volcanoes, and vast canyon systems that reveal a rich geological and hydrologic
past.
6.417 × 10²³ kg 3,389.5 km 227.9M km 686.98 days
MASS (0.107 M♁) MEAN RADIUS DISTANCE TO SUN (1.52 AU) ORBITAL PERIOD (1.88 YRS)
24h 37m 22s 3.721 m/s² -63°C (210 K) 2 Moons
SOLAR DAY (SOL) SURFACE GRAVITY (0.38 G) MEAN SURFACE TEMP PHOBOS & DEIMOS
1. Physical & Orbital Parameters
Mars moves along an eccentric orbit at an average orbital speed of 24.07 km/s. Its axial tilt of 25.19° is remarkably similar to
Earth's (23.44°), resulting in four distinct seasonal cycles, though each Martian season lasts nearly twice as long.
VALUE (SI / STANDARD
PARAMETER SCIENTIFIC CONTEXT
UNITS)
Approximately 28.4% of Earth's total surface area (nearly equal to
Surface Area 144,798,500 km²
Earth's dry land area)
Volume 1.6318 × 10¹¹ km³ Equivalent to approximately 15.1% of Earth's volume
Mean Density 3.933 g/cm³ Lowest density among the four terrestrial planets
Escape Velocity 5.027 km/s (18,100 km/h) Less than half of Earth's escape velocity (11.19 km/s)
Atmospheric ~0.6% of Earth's sea-level pressure; fluctuates seasonally by up to
0.636 kPa (6.36 mbar)
Pressure 30%
Drives seasonal carbon dioxide ice sublimation and global dust storm
Axial Tilt (Obliquity) 25.19°
activity
2. Internal Structure & Geophysical State
Data from NASA's InSight lander (using seismology) has constrained Mars's internal structure, confirming a layered interior
consisting of a crust, mantle, and a liquid core.
ESTIMATED
INTERIOR
THICKNESS / PRIMARY COMPOSITION GEOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
LAYER
RADIUS
24 – 72 km (Average Basaltic rock, enriched in Iron, Dichotomy: Thin in Northern Lowlands (~25
Crust
~45 km) Magnesium, Aluminum, and Silica km), thick in Southern Highlands (~58 km)
Mantle
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ESTIMATED
INTERIOR
THICKNESS / PRIMARY COMPOSITION GEOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
LAYER
RADIUS
~1,500 – 1,800 km Silicate minerals (Olivine, Pyroxene) Solid silicate mantle; lacks active plate
depth enriched in Iron oxide tectonics in the current epoch
Liquid Iron-Nickel alloy (Fe-Ni) Completely liquid; density lower than
Core ~1,830 km radius mixed with Light elements (Sulfur, previously predicted due to volatile
Oxygen) elements
MAGNETIC FIELD LOSS & ATMOSPHERIC STRIPPING
Unlike Earth, Mars lacks a primary intrinsic magnetic field today. Its core geodynamo ceased functioning approximately
**4.0 billion years ago**. Consequently, solar wind radiation directly impinges on the upper atmosphere, gradually
stripping lighter atmospheric gases into space over geological time. Weak paleomagnetic residual fields remain
imprinted in ancient crustal rocks in the southern hemisphere.
3. Atmosphere, Climate & Surface Geology
The Martian atmosphere is thin and dry, composed predominantly of carbon dioxide. Surface temperatures range from a
summer high of +20°C near the equator to a winter low of -153°C at the poles.
GAS COMPONENT VOLUME FRACTION Geological Landmarks
• Olympus Mons: The largest shield volcano in the Solar
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) 95.32%
System, standing ~21.9 km high (nearly 2.5× Everest) with
a base width of 600 km.
Nitrogen (N₂) 2.60%
• Valles Marineris: A colossal canyon system spanning over
Argon (Ar) 1.90% 4,000 km in length, 200 km in width, and up to 7 km deep.
• Polar Ice Caps: Composite caps made of water ice
Oxygen (O₂) 0.16% covered by a seasonal layer of dry ice (frozen CO₂).
• Ancient River Deltas: Dried lake basins (e.g., Jezero
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 0.06% Crater) revealing ancient liquid water activity during the
Noachian era (~4.1–3.7 Ga).
Water Vapor (H₂O) ~0.03% (Variable)
4. Natural Satellites: Phobos & Deimos
Mars has two small, irregularly shaped moons discovered by Asaph Hall in 1877. Both are thought to be captured main-belt
asteroids or debris from an ancient impact event.
MEAN ORBITAL ORBITAL
MOON KEY PHYSICAL & ORBITAL CHARACTERISTICS
DIAMETER DISTANCE PERIOD
Orbits faster than Mars rotates; tidally locked; gradually
22.2 km (27 × 9,376 km (3,700 7h 39m
Phobos spiraling inward and projected to break apart into a ring
22 × 18 km) km above surface) (0.319 days)
system in 30–50 million years.
12.6 km (15 × 30h 18m Smoother appearance due to a thick regolith layer;
Deimos 23,463 km
12 × 10 km) (1.263 days) slowly spiraling away from Mars.
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EXPLORATION & ASTROBIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Mars is the most thoroughly explored planet other than Earth. Historic missions include Mariner 9, Viking 1/2, Pathfinder
(Sojourner), Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit & Opportunity), Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), Curiosity,
Perseverance, Ingenuity helicopter, MAVEN, ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter, Tianwen-1 (Zhurong), and the Hope Orbiter.
Orbital and rover data conclusively show that early Mars possessed liquid surface water, lakes, and rivers, making it a
prime candidate in the search for biosignatures and past micro-biological habitability.
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