TOPIC
Computer Network
RARP, DHCP, Switching, Routing
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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Address Resolution Protocol is a communication protocol used for discovering physical address
associated with given network address.
ARP is a network layer to data link layer mapping process, which is used to discover MAC
address for given Internet Protocol Address.
In order to send the data to destination, having IP address is necessary but not sufficient;
we also need the physical address of the destination machine.
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[Link] Cache: After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the source
where it is stored in a table for future reference.
The subsequent communications can use the MAC address from the table.
[Link] Cache Timeout: It indicates the time for which the MAC address in the ARP
cache can reside.
3. ARP request: This is nothing but broadcasting a packet over the network to
validate whether we came across the destination MAC address or not.
1. The physical address of the sender.
2. The IP address of the sender.
3. The physical address of the receiver is FF:FF:FF:FF:FF: FF or 1’s.
4. The IP address of the receiver.
[Link] response/reply: It is the MAC address response that the source receives
from the destination which aids in further communication of the data.
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Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP):
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a networking protocol that is used to
map a physical (MAC) address to an Internet Protocol (IP) address.
The client broadcasts a RARP request with an Ethernet broadcast address and with its own
physical address. The server responds by informing the client its IP address.
LAN technologies like Ethernet, Ethernet II, Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI) support the Address Resolution Protocol.
RARP is not being used in today’s networks. Because we have much great featured protocols
like BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) and DHCP( Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is a network protocol used to automate the process
of assigning IP addresses and other network configuration parameters to devices (such as
computers, smartphones, and printers) on a network.
Instead of manually configuring each device with an IP address, DHCP allows devices to
connect to a network and receive all necessary network information, like IP address,
subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS server addresses, automatically from a DHCP
server.
DHCP helps in managing the entire process automatically and centrally.
DHCP helps in maintaining a unique IP Address for a host using the server.
DHCP servers maintain information on TCP/IP configuration and provide configuration of
address to DHCP-enabled clients in the form of a lease offer.
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Switching :
Switching is the process of transferring data packets from one device to another in a
network, using specific devices called switches.
A computer user experiences switching all the time.
For example, accessing the Internet from your computer device, whenever a user requests a
webpage to open, the request is processed through switching of data packets only.
Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model.
This means that after the generation of data packets in the Physical Layer, switching is the
immediate next process in data communication.
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A switch is a hardware device in a network that connects and helps multiple devices share a
network without their data interfering with each other.
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Types of Switching
There are three types of switching methods:
1. Message Switching
2. Circuit Switching
3. Packet Switching
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Message Switching: In message switching technique, the entire data block/message is
forwarded across the entire network thus, making it highly inefficient.
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Circuit Switching: In this type of switching, a connection is established between the source and
destination beforehand.
This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network until the data is transferred
completely.
This approach is better than message switching as it does not involve sending data to the
entire network, instead of its destination only.
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Packet Switching: This technique requires the data to be broken down into smaller components,
data frames, or packets.
These data frames are then transferred to their destinations according to the available resources
in the network at a particular time.
This switching type is used in modern computers and even the Internet.
Here, each data frame contains additional information about the destination and other information
required for proper transfer through network components.
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Datagram Packet Switching: In Datagram Packet switching, each data frame is
taken as an individual entity and thus, they are processed separately. Here, no
connection is established before data transmission occurs.
Although this approach provides flexibility in data transfer, it may cause a loss of data
frames or late delivery of the data frames.
Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching: In Virtual-Circuit Packet switching, a logical
connection between the source and destination is made before transmitting any data.
These logical connections are called virtual circuits.
Each data frame follows these logical paths and provides a reliable way of
transmitting data with less chance of data loss.
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Routing:
Routing is the process of determining paths through a network for sending data packets.
It ensures that data moves effectively from source to destination, making the best use of
network resources and ensuring consistent communication.
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It is an autonomous process handled by the network devices to direct a data packet to its
intended destination. The node here refers to a network device called Router.
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Shortest path is selected by the routing algorithms when routing a data packet.
Routing Algorithms select the shortest path based on metrics like – hop count, delay,
bandwidth etc.
The core network device used in routing is router. Routes are stored in a logical data structure
called – ‘Routing Table‘.
1. Static Routing
Static routing is also called as “non-adaptive routing”. In this, routing configuration is done
manually by the network administrator.
Example, we have 5 different routes to transmit data from one node to another, so the
network administrator will have to manually enter the routing information by assessing all the
routes.
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2. Default Routing
This is the method where the router is configured to send all packets toward a
single router (next hop).
It doesn’t matter to which network the packet belongs, it is forwarded out to the
router which is configured for default routing. It is generally used with stub routers.
A stub router is a router that has only one route to reach all other networks.
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3. Dynamic Routing:
Dynamic routing makes automatic adjustments of the routes according to the
current state of the route in the routing table.
Dynamic routing uses protocols to discover network destinations and the routes to
reach them.
Automatic adjustments will be made to reach the network destination if one route
goes down.
A dynamic protocol has the following features:
• The routers should have the same dynamic protocol running in order to
exchange routes.
• When a router finds a change in the topology then the router advertises it to all other
routers.
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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol for communications
that helps in the exchange of messages between different devices over a network.
It is one of the main protocols of the TCP/IP suite.
In OSI model, it operates at the transport layer(Layer 4).
It lies between the Application and Network Layers which are used in providing reliable
delivery services.
The Internet Protocol (IP), which establishes the technique for sending data packets between
computers, works with TCP.
TCP establishes a reliable connection between sender and receiver using the three-way
handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK) and it uses a four-step handshake (FIN, ACK, FIN,
ACK) to close connections properly.
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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
Features of TCP:
• Segment Numbering:
Assigns sequence numbers to segments and byte numbers to data for tracking
and reordering.
• Connection-Oriented:
Establishes a reliable connection before data transfer; ensures data arrives in
order.
• Full Duplex:
Data flows in both directions simultaneously (sender ↔ receiver).
• Flow Control:
Uses a sliding window to regulate the rate of data transfer based on receiver
capacity.
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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
Features of TCP:
• Error Control:
Ensures reliable delivery by detecting and handling errors, lost, duplicate, or
out-of-order segments.
• Congestion Control:
Monitors network load and adjusts data transmission to avoid congestion.
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User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the
Internet Protocol suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite.
Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable and connectionless protocol. So, there is no need
to establish a connection before data transfer.
The UDP helps to establish low-latency and loss-tolerating connections over the
network.
The UDP enables process-to-process communication.
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User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
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User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
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