Module :1 Principles of Renewable Energy: Introduction, Energy and sustainable
development, Fundamentals, Scientific principles of renewable energy, Technical implications,
Social implications, Problems
SOURCES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
Renewable energy sources occur in nature which are regenerative or inexhaustible like solar
energy, wind energy, hydropower, geothermal, biomass, tidal and wave energy. Most of these
alternative sources are the manifestation of solar energy as shown in above figure.
India is implementing one of the world’s largest programmes in renewable energy. The country
ranks second in the world in biogas utilization and fifth in wind power and photovoltaic
production. Renewable sources contribute to about 5% of the total power generating capacity in
the country. The major renewable energy sources and devices in use as on December 2009 are
shown in Table below indicating the potential and installed capacity
Small hydropower is under renewable source. Large hydropower is also renewable in nature,
but has been utilized all over the world for many decades and hence not included in the term
‘alternate or renewable’.
Municipal and industrial waste is also a useful source of energy, but are different forms of
biomass.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has made efforts during the past few
decades to develop and utilize various renewable energy resources in the country.
Consequently, wind electric generators, solar water heaters, solar lanterns, street lights, biogas
plants, biomass gasifiers and small hydro-electric generators have become commercially
available. Wind farms, solar arrays, hydro and biomass power generation are all
environmentally benign unlike fossil fuel and nuclear plants
ENERGY PARAMETERS
To conserve fuel, it is necessary to adopt measures for maximizing economic development with
minimum energy consumption. The yardstick parameters are discussed in the following
subsections.
Energy Intensity
The ‘energy intensity’ is defined as energy consumption per unit of GNP (Gross National
Product) as shown in Table below
There is a marginal fall in the energy–GNP ratio. The downward trend will continue if the per
unit energy consumption for the production of energy intensive raw materials, like steel and
aluminum is gradually reduced. Developed countries have reduced ‘energy intensity’, resulting
in less energy consumption and at the same time achieving higher production. India’s energy
intensity is 3.5 times higher than that of Japan and double that of the USA.
There is a scope for reducing our energy requirement by improving the energy intensity through
‘energy conservation’ and efficiency. China has already reduced its energy requirement by a
factor of two through reduced intensity.
Energy–GDP Elasticity
There is a percent-wise growth in energy requirement per GDP. The ‘energy–GDP elasticity’ is
defined as the percentage growth in energy requirement for 1% growth in GDP. The lower the
value of elasticity, the higher is the overall efficiency. The value of elasticity for the developed
countries ranges from 0.8 to 1.0, whereas for India it is around 1.2.
There is a scope for improvement in the efficiency of energy use, for example, 20%–25%
energy saving can be achieved in energy intensive aluminum, iron and steel, paper and pulp,
textile and chemical industries by improved capacity utilization and development of
cogeneration facilities. Digital metering in agriculture and the domestic sector would save
wastage or eliminate unauthorized energy by 100%.
COGENERATION
Large quantity of heat generated in thermal power stations is lost in condensers and cooling
towers. It is economical to save fuel by the simultaneous generation of electricity and steam or
hot water for process heat. It is called cogeneration, and with this mode the efficiency of fuel
utilization can be increased up to 60%.
Cogeneration of steam and electricity is highly energy efficient and is especially suitable for
sugar mills, textile, paper, fertilizer and crude oil refining industries. In India, almost all sugar
mills operate in cogeneration mode and generate more electricity than what they require. The
additional power is purchased by state governments with facilities of wheeling power on existing
lines. Cumulative achievement up to 31-12-2009 is 1308 MW.
Cogeneration of heat and electricity can be dealt with in two ways:
(i) Topping cycle
(ii) Bottoming cycle
In the topping cycle mode, fuel is burnt to generate electric power and the discharged heat from
the turbine is supplied as process heat.
In the bottoming cycle, fuel is consumed to produce process heat, and waste heat is then
utilized to generate power.
NEW TECHNOLOGIES
New and emerging technologies like hydrogen energy, fuel cells and biofuels hold major
promises for meeting the future energy needs of the country.
Hydrogen Energy Systems
Hydrogen, high in energy content, is a clean and efficient energy carrier with a potential to
replace liquid fossil fuels. Globally, 95% of hydrogen is produced from hydrocarbons. About 4%
is produced through electrolysis of water using electricity and by thermal decomposition of water
through solar energy or nuclear power.
Hydrogen can be converted effectively back to electricity
either directly in IC engines or through fuel cells. Hydrogen is also a good fuel for aircraft and
automobiles that could encourage its large-scale commercial production, storage and
distribution.
Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts fuel energy into electricity and heat
without combustion. A fuel cell is similar to a battery having electrodes, positive and negative
terminals, and an electrolyte. To operate a fuel cell, hydrogen is supplied to the negative
electrode and oxygen (or air) to the positive. Hydrogen and oxygen react to produce water and
electricity. A fuel cell continues to work as long as fuel is supplied. Despite their benefits, fuel
cells are not in wide use due to their high cost ($ 2000/kW). The state-of-the art fuel cells have
been developed, and being tested, costing $ 1200/kW, and which cost is comparable to that
achievable with a conventional coal-fired power plant.
Biofuels
The organic material of plants is called biomass which may be converted by anaerobic
digestion into methane, and through fermentation process into alcohol. Examples are oil
extraction from oil seeds, and transesterification of oil with alcohol which produces biofuel
(ethanol). Production of biofuels is encouraged due to 5% compulsory blend of ethanol in petrol
in nine states (Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil
Nadu and Uttar Pradesh) and four union territories (Chandigarh, Dadar Nagar Haveli, Daman
and Diu and Pondicherry).
Its advantages are: environmental friendly, blends of renewable sources of energy and savings
in foreign exchange spent in importing crude oil. Ethanol requirement for 5% blending is about
320 million liters per year which accounts for only 25% present production in the country.
DISTRIBUTED ENERGY SYSTEMS AND DISPERSED GENERATION
Distributed Energy Systems
Conventional energy sources constitute fossil fuels such as coal, crude oil products (petrol,
diesel, and natural gas) and nuclear fission fuel. These energy resources do not get replenished
after their consumption and are likely to be exhausted. Fossil fuels are available in bulk
quantities at their source. They pose environmental problems at the extraction, transport and
generation stages.
Non-conventional energy or renewable energy resources that are renewed by
nature periodically. These are, solar, wind, small hydro, biomass, biodiesel, geothermal, ocean
tide and wave energy etc. These sources are not affected by the rate of consumption. However,
these sources are not available in concentrated form at one location, so they are called
distributed energy systems and are classified as:
1. Solar energy distributed system
2. Distributed system of wind energy
3. Distributed system of small hydro
4. Distributed system of biomass
Solar energy distributed system
Solar energy is a flow and not a stock, solar energy reaching per square meter of the Earth’s
atmosphere is 1.36 kW, i.e., 16.32 kWh in 12 hours. This energy is attenuated by the earth’s
atmosphere, thus, actual energy reaching the earth’s surface varies with atmospheric
conditions, time of the day, month and also latitude of the place. Nearly 35 percent of solar
energy received at the earth’s atmosphere is reflected back into space, 18 per cent is absorbed
by the atmosphere and drives the winds, and the balance 47 per cent reaches the earth. Energy
received per square meter in India varies in the range 4.0 kWh to 7.5 kWh per day under normal
clear sky conditions. Solar energy is widely distributed, and can be tapped at the location of its
consumption.
Distributed system of wind energy
Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of large masses of air
resulting from the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the Sun. As this energy is not sufficient
to be tapped at every location, wind energy maps are prepared using monthly and annual mean
wind speeds known for selected locations. These maps show energy available in kWh in one
square meter area of wind stream at 10 meter height from the ground level. Sites of high wind
locations are in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, coastal belts of Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea islands,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. In India, to maximize energy availability during a
year rated speed is in the range of 20–25 kmph which would correspond to 9–17 kmph annual
average. Wind energy is available at specific locations in a distributed form. 20 • Renewable
Energy Sources and Emerging Technologies
Distributed system of small hydro
Small, mini and micro hydel power generation result from the dispersal of their sites. Most of
the potential is in Himalayan States as river-based projects and in other states as an irrigation
canal. Favorable parameters of dispersed small hydro systems are:
1. Cost-effective, i.e., ideal locations
2. Short gestation period
3. No deforestation, so environmentally benign
4. Moderate potential ‘Greenhouse Gases’ abatement
5. Improves quality of life in remote low income areas
6. Requires participation of household and local communities.
Small hydro energy is available at favorable locations in a distributed form.
Distributed system of biomass
Biomass includes both terrestrial and aquatic matter which can be grouped into new plant
growth, plant residue and wastes.
New plant growth includes wood, short rotation trees, herbaceous plants, arid area plantation,
algae and aquatic plants.
Plant residue cover crop material such as straws, rice husk, cotton stalks, maize cobs, coconut
shells, bagasse, etc. There are secondary level products such as cow dung, animal droppings,
forest residues like bark, wood shavings, and saw dust etc.
Waste comprises disposable material like municipal garbage, night soil, sewage solids and
industrial refuse.
Total biomass is not centrally available at one location but widely distributed in entire country,
i.e., in forests, plants in arid areas, water hyacinth in water bodies, crop material in villages,
municipal waste in towns and cities.
Dispersed Generation
Developed and developing countries of the world are focussing on environmental damage
observed due to conventional energy powers. After deliberations, consensus has emerged in
favor of renewable energy sources to correct damage done by climate change, a threat to life
over the globe.
There are two options; soft path (benign) and hard path (harmful) with energy
concept. It is experimentally proven that renewable energy sources are the best options with no
adverse environmental impacts, while conventional energy (fossil fuels) options have triggered
global warming. Now, the study is to generate energy with minimum environmental damage.
Hard path represents centralized and planned expansion of electrical energy generation to
meet growing demand. It leads to super thermal coal based power stations, large hydro power
generation and nuclear power installations, susceptible to large scale breakdowns, possible
sabotage, line losses leading to uncertain power supply in large areas.
Soft path energy concept postulates electrical energy production at the site of the energy
source and nearest to the consumption center which is more efficient, economical and reliable.
A soft energy path constitutes small dispersed generation systems to form larger components of
energy production and utilization.
Parameters delaying the soft path are:
1. Having dispersed energy generating facilities nearest to its source.
2. Individuals or a group or defense installations in remote areas control their own source
of energy for efficient operation.
3. Utilizing natural sources of energy called renewable sources.
4. Minimum line losses and highest load factor.
Few renewable energy sources are dealt with here:
Disperse small hydroelectric power generation
Hydro power projects harness energy from falling water in rivers, rivulets, storage dams or
canals. It covers small, mini or kiosk type micro hydro plants. It is a good source of disperse
generation especially in hilly inaccessible areas.
1. Keylong town district headquarter of Lahaul spiti in Himachal Pradesh was electrified in
1964 by 2 × 50 kW hydro electric units. This area remains snow bound for 6 months
from November to June next year, ambient temperature plumbing down to (–8°C).
2. Shansha micro hydro-electric project (2 × 50 kW) on Chenab river tributary operating in
Lahaul valley with a head of 23 meter and water quantity 350 liter/second.
3. Asia’s lowest head micro hydel project in Kakroi (Sonepat), Haryana (3 × 100 kW)
operating with a head of 1.6 meter on Western Yamuna canal with a discharge of 31.6
cumec.
4. Three small hydroelectric power stations capacity (2 × 8 mW) each are operating on
Western Yamuna canal between Hathni Kund and Dadupure (Yamuna nagar), Haryana
having a water head of 12.8 meter with a water discharge of 73.33 m3 /s each.
Disperse solar power generation
There are two basic techniques for converting solar radiation into useful electric power.
1. Conversion of solar radiation into heat and then to electricity in a thermodynamic
process which is called the solar thermal route.
2. Conversion of radiative energy of the sun directly to electricity, called the solar
photovoltaic route.
Solar thermal application covers solar water heating, solar cooking in rural and urban areas,
solar drying, and purification of water. Solar energy is also used for space heating and cooling.
Solar photovoltaic (SPV) technology converts sunlight into DC electricity without any moving
parts and is utilized for lighting, water pumping computers and telecommunications etc. Stand
alone SPV power plants in rural areas provide power for electrification. SPV rooftop power
plants are used for diesel saving in remote areas and the tail end of the grid in rural areas.
Studies have shown that the entire gamut of solar energy utilization is an ecologically benign
source of energy. Solar power generation is a highly dispersed generation system, a clean
energy option with no environmental dangers.
Disperse wind energy generation
Wind energy is harnessed through wind turbines. Shaft power from wind turbines can be
utilized for electric energy generation, direct pumping and direct mechanical work. A wind
turbine system involves a tower mounted multi blade rotor, facing the wind, rotating around a
horizontal axis and turning an electric generator.
Wind Energy Generators (WEGs) begin generating at a minimum or cut-in speed and are
designed to break or cut out when seed exceeds specified limits to prevent damage to the
moving parts and control systems. With varying wind speed, the pitch angle at the rotor is also
changed to get maximum generation from available wind.
Areas having potential wind power density greater than 200 W/m2 , ensuring land availability
wind farms @ 12 ha/MW are established for grid interactive wind power. These areas are
remote and dispersed, having favorable wind regimes on islands, coastal areas and mountain
regions where large arrays of wind turbines are set up to extract renewable energy.
Wind energy generators located scattered over countryside, connected with a battery system or
made hybrid with another source of energy will be a little offensive. Scarce water resources are
not required in wind energy generating systems, contrary to geothermal, solar central receiver,
nuclear and thermal power generation where cooling water is a necessity. Thus, dispersed wind
energy systems are more environmentally benign than any other source of energy.
Biomass energy dispersed generation system
Biomass as a source of energy has tremendous potential. Dispersed biomass energy utilization
systems are of three types:
1. Dry biomass is burnt directly to produce heat by households in rural areas.
2. With biological conversion of biomass, high quality fuels are produced; biogas from
bacterial fermentation.
3. Thermo chemical conversion of biomass used to generate heat/electricity based on
‘pyrolysis’ and ‘gasification’ of wood.
First type of dispersed biomass energy is used by 70% households in rural areas. Firewood is
obtained from crop waste and forests. Use of fuel wood directly in homes for cooking causes air
pollution causing health hazards to the eyes of women.
Biological conversion process involves bacterial breakdown by
microorganisms. This technique is used to produce biogas (methane) from animal and human
waste with anaerobic digestion. Technology is quite simple as waste (cow dung) is fed in a
digester placed below the ground. Microbes present with low temperature heat provided from
the Sun, decompose the waste to produce biogas (CH4 + CO2 + CO). Methane is a major
component with CO, being combustible gasses used directly for heating and cooking purposes
providing relief to rural women.
Community biogas option on a larger scale is economical for marginal farmers with a few and no
cattle. Biogas produced in community digester is also suitable for motive power, i.e., one cuft of
biogas can produce 0.052 H.P./hour. It is used to operate generators to produce electricity.
In chemical conversion of biomass, charcoal making is the ‘Pyrolysis’ where vapor and gasses
are not collected.
Gasification of biomass means thermal decomposition under controlled air supply. Thus, solid
carbonaceous fuels are converted into a combustible gas mixture (CO and H2) called producer
gas or synthesis gas. This gas can be directly burnt to generator process heat or can operate
gas turbines to generate electric power.
India has several programmes to promote biomass-based dispersed electricity generation
systems namely, biomass gasifiers, biomass combustion and cogeneration.
Recently two biomass gasifiers of 10 kW capacity each were commissioned in the Kandhal Test
Project in Cuttack district of Orissa. It covers 150 families of tribals, for domestic lighting,
television programme, children’s study at night.
Similar 54 projects in nine states (Assam, Chattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, M.P., Maharashtra,
Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal) were commissioned in the year 2009.
Scientific principles that are important for renewable energy:
Ecologically sustainable development
Renewable energy projects should be developed in accordance with principles like the
precautionary principle, conservation of biodiversity, and intergenerational equity.
Decision-making should be based on the best available science, and the precautionary
principle should be applied when there's a lack of scientific certainty.
Energy efficiency
Renewable energy sources can help achieve energy efficiency and reduce fuel costs while
also improving the environment by being pollution-free.
Social implications
Renewable energy can have many social implications, including:
1. Employment: Renewable energy can increase or decrease employment rates
in certain regions, depending on their industrial base and how reliant they are on
fossil fuels. For example, decentralized energy systems can create jobs by
locating energy producers closer to where the energy will be used.
2. Health: Renewable energy can improve health by reducing exposure to
hazardous wastes and emissions associated with fossil fuels.
3. Community: Renewable energy infrastructure projects can affect local
communities, especially marginalized groups who may not be consulted or
informed about the projects. For example, building large dams can cause
geological damage, displace people, and alter the natural water table level
Technical implications of Renewable Energy
[Link] savings: Reducing demand for energy
2. Improved efficiency: Increasing the efficiency of energy production
3. Replacing fossil fuels: Using renewable energy sources instead of fossil fuels
Conclusion
Purpose of this write up is to create awareness towards the environmental impact of fossil fuel
based energy generation. In comparison, renewable energy systems have little impact on
natural habitat and environment. It helps us to select a project site for renewable energy
generation, user friendly and compatible with the environment.