SEED TECHNOLOGY

Comprehensive Notes, Concepts, and Procedures

A highly detailed, visually structured guide encompassing seed quality,

processing, treatment, testing, storage, and marketing.
1. Introduction to Seed Technology

Seed: A fertilized ovule that contains an embryo, endosperm or cotyledons, and a seed coat.

• Embryo: The young plant inside the seed.

• Endosperm: Stored food for growth.

• Seed coat: Outer covering that protects the seed.

According to Seed Technology: Any plant material used for propagation of crops where it is a true
seed or a vegetative part (e.g., Tuber, Rhizomes, Bulb, Cutting).

Types: Monocot seed & Dicot seed.

• Scutellum

• Caryopsis

• Hypogeal

• Aleurone layer

• Coleoptile & Coleorhizae

Generation System (Classes of Seed)

The multiplication of seed follows a strict generation system to maintain genetic purity:

Nucleus Seed (100% Genetic Purity)

↓
Breeder Seed (Golden Yellow Tag - 99.9%)

↓
Foundation Seed (White Tag - 99.5%)
 ↓
Certified Seed (Azure Blue Tag - 99.0%)

Key Terminologies:

• Working Sample: Sample on which any test is conducting in the laboratory.

• IMSCA: Indian Minimum Seed Certification Agency.

• TL Seed (Truthfully Labelled Seed): The seed that is produced and sold by private or
public producers & the label gives true information about its quality.

2. Seed Quality
Quality in seed technology refers to the degree of excellence of a seed lot based on its ability to produce
a healthy, uniform & high-yielding crop. Seed quality is the sum of genetic, physical, physiological, and
health attributes that determine the seed's performance.

Six Parameters of Seed Quality

1. Physical Purity: Same physical condition of seed. It refers to the percentage of pure seed
present in a seed lot, free from inert matter, weed seeds, and other crop seeds. Clean seed without
impurities.
2. Genetic Purity: True to its original variety. It refers to the trueness of a seed to its variety or type,
without any admixture of other varieties or crops.

Maintenance:

• Isolation: Maintain proper distance from other varieties/crops.

• Rouging: Remove off-type plant regularly.

• Controlled pollination: Prevent unwanted cross-pollination.

• Proper labeling & storage: Avoid mixing.

• Use pure seed source.

3. Germination: Sprouting of seed into a seedling. The process by which a seed develops into a
new seedling under favourable conditions.

Germination % = (Total germinated seed / Total seed taken) × 100

Minimum germination is usually 80% (IMSCA).

Precocious Germination: It is the early germination of seeds while they are still attached to the
parent plant (e.g., mangrove). Early sprouting before harvest is also called pre-sprouting
germination (inherent property under favourable condition).

4. Vigour: Strength of aliveness or rapid growth capacity to germinate in a wide range of

environments.

5. Viability: Aliveness of seed stored. Ability of seed to remain alive capable of germination under
suitable conditions.
 6. Seed Health: Disease-free & pest-free seeds. Condition of seed being free from disease, pests,
and pathogens that can affect its germination and crop performance.

• Seed is hygroscopic in nature.

• We can maintain/improve seed quality but not increase the intrinsic seed quality beyond
its potential.

• Physiological maturity: Stage when the seed reaches maximum dry weight and attains
full development. Characterized by high moisture (30-35%).

• Harvesting maturity: Stage when seed is ready for harvest safely with minimum losses
and damage. Characterized by low moisture (15-20%). Cereals: 10-12%, Oilseeds: 8%,
Vegetables: 5%.

3. Seed Processing
Seed processing refers to all the steps taken to convert raw (harvested) seed into market seed
(processed seed) for planting, storage, or commercial use. It is a vital part of agriculture and ensures
seeds are viable & high quality, increases market value & shelf life, and improves the quality of seeds.

Steps of Seed Sequence & Principles

1. Drying

Principle: Atmospheric pressure gradient. It is the process of reducing the moisture content of seeds to a
safe level so they can be stored without losing viability or getting damaged by fungi, insects, or
respiration. If moisture level < 17%, then skip drying. Increases storage life.

• Sun drying: 2-3 days, max 43°C.

• Natural air drying: 10-20°C.

• Heated air drying: Max 110°F. Formula: F = 9/5 C + 32.

• Supplementary drying & Force air drying.

2. Preconditioning & Pre-cleaning

Removal of unwanted material from seed based on seed weight and size.

• Scalper: Exhaust fan creates -ve pressure to lift lighter particles/chaff.

• Huller - Scarifier: Removes hull (rice & wheat) & scarification removes hard seed coat via
abrasion.

• Debearder: Removal of awns, hairs to make seeds have a smooth & free-flowing surface.
Reduces clogging in machines. (Uses steel barrel/cylinder, static or fixed shaft).

• Pebble mill: Removes adhering materials like husk, grass seeds. Improves seed appearance
and quality. Rotating cylindrical drum with pebbles according to seed size.

• Hammer mill: Removes seed (baby hairs), bracts (rice). Works on the principle of impact (high-
speed hammering) to reduce material size. Capsule removal.

• Sheller: Hand operated & machinery operated. Separates seed of maize cobs. Saves time &
labour, increases efficiency.

3. Basic Cleaning

Separates desirable seed based on seed size and weight from unwanted materials.

Air Screen Cleaner: Utilizes an exhaust fan (inlet), admixture outlet (4-12° angle). Screen I performs
scalping (close scalping). Screen II performs grading (fine grading).

• Aspiration (Removal): Removal of chaffy material lighter than seed through air flow.

• Scalping: Remove bigger than desirable seed. (Improves market value).

• Grading: Remove small undesirable seed from desirable seeds. (Improves the quality of seed).

4. Upgrading

It is the process of improving the quality of a seed lot by removing inferior, damaged or unwanted seeds
& impurities. Separates based on color, size, shape, surface texture. Increases market value &
processing efficiency.

Basis of Separation Machines Used

Length Disc separator, Indent Cylinder separator

Specific gravity separator (separates heavy, intermediate, light),

Weight / Specific Gravity
Stoney (heavy & light)
 Terminal Velocity / Aerodynamic
Air Terminal / Pneumatic separator, Aspirator (heavy vs light)
property

Surface Texture Roll mill, Magnetic separator, Buckhorn seed separator

Colour Colour sorter

Shape / Electrical Property Electrostatic conductance

Three Types of Processing Unit Layout

1. Single storeyed

2. Multistoreyed

3. Combined storeyed

Components of Processing Unit: (1) Receiver or dryer part, (2) Processing unit, (3) Auxiliary unit.

4. Seed Treatment
Process of applying chemical, biological, botanical, or physical agents to seeds before sowing to protect
them from seed infection & infestation, reducing seed and seedling mortality, and ensuring healthy crop
establishment.

• Seed Infection: Presence & multiplication of disease-causing organisms inside the seed
tissues.

• Seed Infestation: Pathogens/pests present only on the seed surface (seed coat).

Components of seed treatment: Seed disinfection, Seed disinfestation, Seed protection.

Types of Seed Treatment Methods

(I) Physical Seed Treatment Method

• Hot water treatment: Seeds are soaked in hot water at 52°C for 30 min. (e.g., Black rot of
cabbage, Black leg of cabbage).
 • Hot air treatment: Seeds are exposed to hot dry air. (e.g., Grassy shoot disease in sugarcane
setts).

• Solar energy treatment: Exposed to sun's energy (heat) for specific time. (e.g., loose smut of
wheat).

• Seed steeping: Seeds are soaked in water for a specific period to soften seed coat (Max room
temp 20°C).

(II) Chemical Seed Treatment Methods

Chemicals based on composition:

• Mercurial: Highly toxic to human, animal, and environment. Systemic type. Excess dose harms
seed quality. Stored for short time. Organic (Ethyl mercury chloride), Inorganic (Mercuric
chloride, Mercuric oxide).

• Non-mercurial: Less toxic & comparatively safe. Contact type (infestation). Does not
deteriorate seed quality. Can be stored for long time. Organic (Thiram, Captan), Inorganic
(Copper sulphate, Copper carbonate - not used much).

Formulations: Dust (200-250 g per quintal of seed), Slurry (small amount of H2O, no need to drying),
Liquid.

(III) Botanical Seed Treatment Method

Use of plant-based materials/extracts to protect seed. Eco-friendly, low cost & safe. (Ex: Neem leaf or
seed kernel extract, Garlic extract, Turmeric powder, Cow urine + neem mixture).

(IV) Biological Seed Treatment Method

Use of beneficial micro-organisms to protect seeds and improve growth. (Ex: Trichoderma viride,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Bacillus subtilis).
 Advantages of Seed Treatment:

1. Improve quality.

2. Increase shelf life.

3. Improve germination %.

4. Promote healthy & uniform crop stand.

5. Control pathogens.

Disadvantages:

1. Phytotoxicity (harmful effect of chemical - poor germination, stunted growth).

2. Accidental poisoning (unintentional harmful effect on humans, animals etc).

3. Residual effect (chemical remains active).

4. Requires skilled handling & equipments.

5. Treated seed cannot be used for feed & food.

5. Seed Storage
Purpose / Reasons: To maintain the viability of seed. To fill the gap between harvesting and sowing
(stored for next generation). Biofortification (Nutrient enrichment process enhancing nutritional value). To
ensure timely availability of quality seed. To balance supply and demand. To preserve seed viability until
next season.

NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi): 2nd largest. Indian organisation
responsible for collection, conservation, evaluation & exchange of plant genetic resources for agriculture.

Seed Multiplication Rate (SMR): 1kg seed will give rise to a certain quantity of seed. Formula: SMR =
No. of seeds produced / Single seed.
Example SMRs: Paddy 1:80, Bajra 1:200.

Where do we store seeds?

1. Godowns / Warehouses: For bulk seed storage.

2. Cold Storage: For maintaining low temp & humidity.

 3. Bins and Silos: For large quantity seeds.

4. Seed banks / Cryo banks: For long-term conservation.

5. Moisture-proof containers, bags, and Kothi: Small scale storage.

Storage Pests and Conditions

Aspergillus and Penicillium are pests/fungi carried from field to storage. Detection and Treatment is
necessary.

Fumigation: Process of treating seed in storage with suitable chemical, either in gaseous or liquid form.
Ex: Aluminium phosphide (Active ingredient: Phosphine). Light in weight, has less effect on seed viability
(less harmful). Always treat when moisture of seed is less than 12% and RH of room is less than 13%.

Important Factors for Storage of Seed

1. Moisture (9-14%): Paddy - 13%, Soyabean - 12%, Oil seeds - 8%.

2. Temperature (Most important): Manage both moisture & RH. Max temp at which seed is
stored: 4-5°C (extreme condition). Optimum: 15-18°C.

3. Relative Humidity (RH): Amount of moisture present in the air compared to the maximum
moisture the air can hold at the same temp. Favourable: 65%.

Classification Based on Storage Behavior

• Orthodox seed: Stored at low temp & lower moisture (0-5°C, 5%). Ex: Paddy, wheat.

• Recalcitrant seed: Cannot be stored at low temp & moisture (requires ~30% moisture). Ex:
Horticultural crops, cocoa, coconut / Double coconut (Lodoicea maldivica - Largest Seed).

• Intermediate seed: Can be stored at 20% RH (moisture). Ex: Papaya, neem, coffee.

Smallest seed: Orchid (Sikkim). Cluster bean: Gum/guar (Export). Pulse crops generally have low
storability.

Classification based on duration/longevity: Cereals > Pulse > Oil seeds.

• Short term (6-8 months)

• Medium term (12-36 months)

• Long term (5-20 years - NBPGR)

 Factors affecting viability during storage: (i) Seed moisture (or RH of atmos), (ii) Storage temp,
(iii) Gaseous exchange (Temp ↑ respiration ↑), (iv) Physical condn of the seed, (v) Stage of seed
maturity and vigour, (vi) Initial viability, (vii) Microflora, (viii) Insect infestation (Chickpea > pea).
Pests first utilise protein.

Best suitable seed storage condition in India: Cold dry (Ladakh).

ISTA: International Seed Testing Association which gives Protocol for seed testing.

6. Seed Testing

Sampling

Withdrawing of representing seed lot into a sample. Representative Sample.

4 Categories of Sample:

1. Primary (1°) sample: 1st time withdrawing.

2. Composite sample: Compositing of all 1° samples.

3. Submitted sample: Composite sample is divided into small sample and submitted for testing.

4. Working sample (2500 seeds): Sample on which testing is to be done.

Different methods to reduce seed sample: (Reduces seed sample for Analysis, Laboratory and
processing unit).

• Mechanical dividers: Conical divider, Soil divider, Variable sample divider, Centrifugal divider,
Rotary divider.

• Random cup method.

• Hand halving method.

 Testing & Leveling

1. Physical Purity

Physical characteristics of all seed should be same (like shape, size, color). Uses a Diaphanoscope
(lens) to see the quality/physical condition of seed. Working sample for physical test: 2500 seeds.
Divided into three groups (according to ISTA/IMSCA):

• Pure seed

• Other seed (Other crop seeds, Weed seed)

• Inert matter

Physical Purity % = (Total no. of pure seeds / Total no. of seeds) × 100

Standard for Paddy = 98%.

2. Germination Test

Working seed sample for germination: 400 seeds. Evaluates germination %, vigour, quality parameters,
viability, seed health.

4 Factors of Germination: Moisture, Air, Temperature, Light.

Phases of germination: (i) Imbibition (uptake of H2O, fresh wt increases), (ii) Enzyme activation (α-
amylase, Lag Phase), (iii) Radicle emergence (2mm, leads to rupturing of seed coat). Epigeal (legume
exception: pigeonpea) vs Hypogeal (monocot exception: onion).

Substrates used: (4 plates of 100 seeds each) Top of paper, Between paper, Pleated paper, Soil, Sand
(90% sand, passes from 2mm sieve). Uses a Germinator to regulate temp & RH.

Evaluation:

• Germinated seed: Normal seed (intact seedling, slight defect), Abnormal seed (decayed, 1°
infection, deformed, stunted growth).

• Non-germinated seed: Hard seed, Dead seed, Fresh ungerminated seed.

3. Viability & Tetrazolium Test

Quick viability test taking 2-24hr. Tetrazolium reagent helps to differentiate between dormant (embryo -
pink/red colour) and dead seed. Checks viability and dormancy before germination. Chemical formula:
2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride or Bromide.
Mechanism: Respiration produces Dehydrogenase enzymes. 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium Chloride + H+
→ Formazan (Red/Pink colour).

• Quiescent phase: Unfavourable condition, seed does not germinate.

• Dormancy phase: Favourable condition, seed still not germinating due to dormancy & hard
seed coat. Types: Physical dormancy (corrected by scarification), Physiological dormancy/
Rudimentary embryo (corrected by stratification).

4. Moisture Estimation

Routing test {drying hot air oven}:

• 1 stage drying: W1 = weight of cane without seed, W2 = weight of cane with seed before
drying, W3 = weight of cane with seed after drying.
Moisture content (%) = (W2 - W3) / (W2 - W1) × 100 (Standard formulation implied).
• 2nd stage drying: S1 = seeds before predrying, S2 = seeds after predrying. Moisture content

(%) = S1 + S2 - (S1 × S2 / 100).

Temperatures: Low temp (130°C ± 2 hr for maize, rice, wheat), High temp (const 80°C ± 17hr).

Preference methods: Phosphorus penta oxide (temp 64.5°C), Karl Fischer method (Iodine reagent),
Moisture meter (Fast method, easy to use on site at processing plants or field, non-destructive, measures
electrical properties of seed conductivity).

5. Seed Blending

Based on Pearson square method. E.g., blending Seed Lot A (80%) and Seed Lot B (95%) to reach a
desired standard.

7. Seed Vigour and Health Testing

Seed Vigour Tests

• Physical test: shape, size, test weight (1000 seed weight).

• Physiological test: germination %, germination speed, vigour index, shoot length.

• Bio-chemical test: electrical conductivity, tetrazolium test.

• Stress test: brick gravel test, cool test (17-18°C for 18hr seed imbibition in water).
 Seed Vigour Index (SVI):
SVI I = Germination % × Seedling length (mm)
SVI II = Germination % × Dry matter of seedling (mg)

Dry matter is obtained via oven-dried seedling at 80°C for 15 hours.

Seed Health Testing

Resist seed from day to day deformation. Absence of any bacterial, spore, fungi, pathogen (soil borne),
pest. Conventional Methods:

• Visual method, Histopathological test, Washing test (good for bacteria, spore of fungi,
designated disease).

• X-ray radiography (mechanical damage, insect intact).

• Electron microscopy (spores).

• Grow out test (loose smut).

• Cellological method (virus, enzyme). ELISA (Antibody - Antigen base reaction). Lateral flow test
(virus).

• Molecular test: PCR test.

8. Seed Marketing
Communication & Distribution Channels. Proper distribution is essential. Seed Marketing involves
transferring the seed from the place it is produced to the place where it is needed.

Marketing Channels

1. Formal: Public board, State & Central government involved. Clear cut distribution channel
(Strict). Through State dept of ag -> District ag dept.

2. Semi-formal: NGOs, Cooperative, SHGs etc.

3. Informal: General public, group of farmers produce and distribute seed. No clear cut
distribution channel.
Essentials of Selling: Attract potential buyers, appeal to buyer's need with seed available, establish
direct contact, use knowledge of the improved variety to make sale, help buyer recognize value, give as
much service as possible (germination data, disease resistance, etc.).

Market Demand: Total volume of a product that will be bought by consumers in a defined location, within
a specific period and using specific technology with a certain marketing effort.

Factors affecting demand: Crop, variety & quality of seed, desire or needs of farmer, geographically
location, seed rate.

Demand forecast: Understanding the present conditions and predicting the future demand on
communication. Based on what people say, do, and have done.

Distribution Channel:

Seed grower/Seller

↓
Accumulator / Intermediate

↓
Wholesaler

↓
Dealer

↓
Consumer
 Lot Number Coding (4 components):
Example: Nov-26-04-074-03(III)

• Month and year code (Nov-26)

• Production location code (e.g., 04 for Bihar)

• Processing location unit code (e.g., 074 for Dholi)

• Seed Produce unit (e.g., 03 for Godown or state)

BSSOCA: Bihar State Seed and Organic Certification Agency (Located at Patna).

9. Pests of Stored Grains

Pests include Insects, Pathogens (fungi), Rodents, Birds.

Common Post-harvest Insects

• Granary weevil / Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae

• Lesser grain borer: Rhizopertha dominica

• Angoumois grain moth: Sitotroga cerealella

• Red flour beetle: Tribolium castaneum

• Saw toothed grain beetle.

• Indian meal moth.

• Khapra beetle: Most dangerous pest in rice.

Life cycle: Beetle → 15-18 days. Moths → 28-35 days.

Cereal & pulse → high volume, low value seeds. Veg & fruits → high value & low volume seeds.

Rodents

• Black rat / House rat: Rattus rattus

• Common rat: Rattus norvegicus

• House mouse: Mus musculus

Damage: Feed on grain (rats 25g/day, mice 3-4g/day). Spoilage & contamination of grains, damage
materials.

Fungi

Most common: Aspergillus & Penicillium. Cause grain spoilage and mycotoxins (poisonous). Determined
by moisture content, temperature, condition of grain going to storage, length of time stored, amount of
insect/mite activity.

Management of Stored Grains

• Harvesting & drying: Grain moisture content (12-14%).

• Minimize cracked & broken grain during processing.

• Don't mix old & new grain.

• Cleaning & disinfecting the storage system: clean storage containers, equipment & bags. Treat
with insecticide: Malathion (50EC) at 5ml/20L of H2O, Fenitrothion (50EC) at 5ml/1L water,
Deltamethrin 2.5% (WP) at 1.5g/1L water. Treat infected grain.

• Rat management: Keep store clean - remove rubbish, weeds. Store bags set up on pallets.
Keep surrounding area free of stagnant water.

• Fungal control: Heat dry at 65°C for days. Hot water treatment at 52-55°C. Fungicides:
Dithane M-45 and Benlate at 3g/kg.

• MAP: Modified Atmospheric Packaging.