STUDY NOTES | COMPLETE COMPILATION

SEED
TECHNOLOGY

Compiled from: Class notes (Shruti Ma'am)

Institute: Tirhut College of Agriculture (TCA), Dholi
University: Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural
University (RPCAU), Pusa, Bihar
Coverage: Seed structure & classes • Seed quality
parameters • Seed processing & machinery • Seed
treatment • Storage & genetic conservation • Sampling
& testing (ISTA) • Germination & vigour • Seed health •
Moisture estimation • Seed marketing • Storage pests &
management
 i Table of Contents

1. The Seed — Structure, Definition & Classes of Seed Pg. 1

2. Seed Quality — Six Parameters of Quality Pg. 2

3. Seed Processing — Drying, Cleaning, Upgrading & Machinery Pg. 3

4. Seed Treatment — Methods, Advantages & Disadvantages Pg. 5

5. Seed Storage — Purpose, Factors, Types & Conservation Pg. 6

6. Seed Sampling — Categories & Reduction Methods Pg. 8

7. Seed Testing — Physical Purity, ISTA Protocols Pg. 8

8. Germination — Phases, Substrates & Evaluation Pg. 9

9. Tetrazolium (Viability) Test & Seed Dormancy Pg. 10

10. Moisture Estimation — Oven Method, Meters & Blending Pg. 11

11. Pre-Sowing Seed Treatments (Special Topic) Pg. 12

12. Seed Marketing — Channels, Demand & Lot Numbering Pg. 13

13. Seed Vigour — Tests & Indices Pg. 14

14. Seed Health — Detection Methods Pg. 15

15. Pests of Stored Grain — Insects, Rodents & Fungi Pg. 15

 1 The Seed — Structure, Definition & Classes of Seed

1.1 What is a Seed?

Seed is a fertilized ovule that contains an embryo, endosperm or cotyledons, and a seed coat.

Part Function

Embryo The young plant present inside the seed

Endosperm Stored food reserve that supports growth of the embryo

Seed coat Outer covering that protects the seed

1.2 Definition as per Seed Technology

According to Seed Technology, any plant material used for propagation of crops, where it is either a true seed or a vegetative part, is considered "seed".

Examples of vegetative "seed": Tuber, Rhizome, Bulb, Cutting

1.3 Types of Seed

Seeds are broadly classified as Monocot seed and Dicot seed. Important structural terms associated with seed types:

Scutellum Caryopsis Hypogeal

Modified single cotyledon found in monocot (grass Fruit type where seed coat is fused with the fruit Germination type where cotyledons remain below
family) seeds wall (typical of cereals) the soil surface

Aleurone layer Coleoptile Coleorhizae

Protein-rich outer layer of the endosperm in cereal Protective sheath covering the plumule (shoot) in Protective sheath covering the radicle (root) in
grains monocots monocots

1.4 Generation System — Classes of Seed (based on Genetic Purity)

Seed multiplication passes through a controlled generation system to maintain genetic purity at each stage:

NUCLEUS SEED — 100% genetic purity

⬇
BREEDER SEED — 99.9%
Golden Yellow Tag

⬇
FOUNDATION SEED — 99% (99.5%)
White Tag

⬇
CERTIFIED SEED — 98% (99%)
Azure Blue Tag

*Values in brackets represent the corrected/updated genetic-purity figures as annotated in the original notes.

1.5 Important Terms

Term Meaning

Working sample The sample on which any test is conducted in the laboratory

IMSCA Indian Minimum Seed Certification Agency

TL Seed Truthfully Labelled seed — seed that is produced and sold by private or public producers, where the label gives true information
about its quality
 2 Seed Quality — Six Parameters

Quality in seed technology refers to the degree of excellence of a seed lot, based on its ability to produce a healthy, uniform, and high-yielding crop.

Seed quality is the sum of genetic, physical, physiological, and health attributes that determine the seed's performance.

Important note: We can only improve seed quality — we cannot increase it beyond the genetic potential already present in the seed.

The Six Parameters of Seed Quality

① Physical Purity
Refers to the same physical condition of the seed. It refers to the percentage of pure seed present in a seed lot — free from inert matter, weed seeds, and other crop
seeds. In short: clean seed without impurities.

② Genetic Purity
"True to its original variety" — refers to the trueness of a seed to its variety or type, without any admixture of other varieties or crops.
Maintenance of genetic purity:
1. Isolation — maintain proper distance from other varieties/crops
2. Roguing — remove off-type plants regularly
3. Controlled pollination — prevent unwanted cross-pollination
4. Proper labeling & storage — avoid mixing
5. Use of pure seed source

③ Germination
Sprouting of a seed into a seedling — the process by which a seed develops into a new seedling under favourable conditions.

Germination % age = (Total germinated seed ÷ Total seed taken) × 100

Minimum germination is usually 80% (IMSCA)

Precocious germination: The early germination of seeds while they are still attached to the parent plant — an inherent property, e.g. in mangrove. Early sprouting
before harvest is called pre-sprouted germination (occurs under favourable conditions).

④ Vigour
The strength of aliveness or rapid growth capacity of a seed — the ability to germinate over a wide range of environments.

⑤ Viability
The aliveness of a seed — the ability of a seed to remain alive and capable of germination under suitable conditions.

⑥ Seed Health
Disease-free and pest-free seed — the condition of a seed being free from diseases, pests, and pathogens that can affect its germination and crop performance.

Additional facts: Seed is hygroscopic in nature (readily absorbs/loses moisture from the atmosphere).

Physiological Maturity vs. Harvesting Maturity

Stage Description Moisture Level

Physiological maturity Stage when the seed reaches maximum dry weight and attains full development High moisture (30–35%)

Harvesting maturity Stage when the seed is ready to be harvested safely with minimum losses and Low moisture (15–20%)
damage

Moisture content at harvest maturity (crop-wise)

Crop group Moisture (%)

Cereals 10 – 12%

Oilseeds 8%

Vegetables 5%
 3 Seed Processing — Steps & Machinery

Seed processing refers to all the steps taken to convert raw (harvested) seed into market seed (processed seed) — for planting, storage, or commercial use. It is
a part of agriculture that ensures seeds are healthy, viable, and of high quality. It increases the market value and shelf life of the seed and improves the
quality of seeds.

The Seed Processing Sequence:

① Drying → ② Preconditioning & Precleaning → ③ Basic Cleaning → ④ Upgrading → ⑤ Seed Treatment → ⑥ Storage

① Drying (Principle: Atmospheric Pressure Gradient)

The process of reducing the moisture content of seeds to a safe level, so they can be stored without losing viability or getting damaged by fungi, insects, or respiration.
Increases storage life.
If moisture level ≤ 17%, drying can be skipped.

Sun Drying Force Air Drying

(2–3 days, max. 5 days) ↙ ↘
Natural Air Drying Supplementary Drying (10–20°C) Heated Air Drying (110°F, max. 43°C)

F = (9/5)·C + 32 (Fahrenheit–Celsius conversion)

② Preconditioning & Precleaning

Removal of unwanted material from seed which is heavier than the seed — based on seed weight. This step uses several types of equipment:

(i) Scalper

Hopper

Exhaust
Screen I — Scalping (Pre-conditioning)

Fan (–ve pressure)

Screen II — Rough Scalping (Pre-cleaning)

Mesh size (differs per seed)

Fig. Scalper — separates seed based on hopper feed, exhaust suction, and two graded screens

(ii) Huller–Scarifier
Huller — removes the hull (used in rice & wheat). Scarifier — performs scarification (removal of the hard seed coat in legume crops).

Abrasion (rows of pegs rub against seed coat)

Iron → Seed Collector

Shaft

Fig. Huller–Scarifier — abrasive rotating shaft removes hull / scarifies hard seed coat

(iii) Debearder
Removes awns and hairs — makes seeds smooth and free-flowing, and reduces clogging in machines. Used, e.g., in an oats barrel.

Shaft
Steel Cylinder

Beater arms (fixed / static)

Fig. Debearder — fixed beater arms strip off awns/hairs inside a rotating steel cylinder

(iv) Pebble Mill

Used for gross weeds; removes adhering materials like husk and improves seed appearance and quality. Consists of a rotating cylindrical drum containing pebbles
(selected according to seed size) along with the seed — this removes "baby hairs" from the seed surface.
(v) Hammer Mill
Removes bracks (in rice). Works on the principle of impact (high-speed hammering) to reduce material size; used for capsule removal.

(vi) Sheller
Available in hand-operated and mechanically-operated versions. Used to separate the seed from maize cobs. Saves time and labour, and increases efficiency.

③ Basic Cleaning
Separates the desirable seed — based on seed size and weight — from unwanted materials.

Air-Screen Cleaner

Fan

Inlet

Admixture
Inlet
Screen I — Scalping

Screen II — Grading (4°–12°)

Screen III — Close Scalping

Screen IV — Fine Grading

Fan

Outlet (chaffy seed)

Fig. Air-Screen Cleaner — four graded screens with fan-driven aspiration

Scalping → just improves the quality of seed. Grading → improves quality so as to increase the market value.
Principles used:
1. Aspiration — removal of chaffy material (lighter than seed) through the fan
2. Scalping — removes material bigger than the desirable seed
3. Grading — removes small, undesirable seed from the desirable seeds

④ Upgrading
The process of improving the quality of a seed lot by removing inferior, damaged, or unwanted seeds and impurities — this increases market value. Separation is
based on colour, size, shape, and surface texture.

Basis of Separation Machine Used

Length Length separator → Disc separator, Indent cylinder separator

Weight (specific gravity) Specific gravity separator (very heavy / heavy / intermediate / light / very light separator); Stoner (heavy & light)

Air / terminal velocity (heavy↓, Pneumatic and Aspirator separators (aerodynamic property)
light↑)

Surface texture Roll mill, Magnetic separator, Buckhorn seed separator

Colour Colour sorter

Electrostatic property Conductance-based separation

Types of Processing Unit Layout

Single-storeyed Multi-storeyed Combined storeyed

Components of a Processing Unit

1. Receiving or dryer part
2. Processing unit
3. Auxiliary unit
 4 Seed Treatment — Methods, Advantages & Disadvantages

The process of applying chemical, biological, botanical, or physical agents to seeds before sowing, to protect them from seed infection and infestation.

Term Meaning

Seed infection Presence and multiplication of disease-causing organisms inside the seed tissues

Seed infestation Organisms present on the seed surface only, harming the seed coat

Components of Seed Treatment

1. Seed Disinfection 2. Seed Disinfestation 3. Seed Protection

Objectives of Seed Treatment

1. To protect seed from diseases
2. To control insect, pest, or pathogen
3. To improve germination rate
4. To ensure healthy crop establishment
5. To reduce seed and seedling mortality

Types of Seed Treatment

(i) Physical Seed Treatment Methods

Method Description Example

Hot water treatment Seeds soaked in hot water at 52°C for 30 minutes Black rot of cabbage, Black leg of
cabbage

Hot air treatment Seeds exposed to hot dry air Grassy shoot disease (sugarcane setts)

Solar energy treatment Seeds exposed to sun's energy (heat) for a specific time Loose smut of wheat

Seed steeping in water Seeds soaked in water for a specific period to soften seed coat (max. 4 hr, room —
temp ~20°C)

(ii) Chemical Seed Treatment Methods

Chemicals used are classified based on their composition:

Mercurial Non-Mercurial

↙ ↘ ↙ ↘
Organic: Ethyl mercury chloride Inorganic: Mercuric chloride, Mercuric oxide Organic: Thairam, Captan Inorganic: Copper sulphate, Carbonate

Property Mercurial Non-Mercurial

Toxicity Highly toxic to humans, animals & environment Less toxic & comparatively safe

Type of action Systemic-type infection control Contact-type infestation control

Effect of excess dose Harms seed quality Does not deteriorate seed quality

Storage duration after Short time only Long time possible

treatment

Types of chemical seed treatment method:

1. Seed dressing
2. Slurry treatment
3. Seed priming
4. Seed pelleting
5. Seed coating

Formulation types:

Formulation Detail

Dust 200–250 g per quintal of seed — no need for drying afterward

Slurry Prepared using a small amount of water — no need for drying afterward

Liquid —

(iii) Botanical Seed Treatment Method

Use of plant-based materials/extracts to protect seed. Eco-friendly, low cost, and safe.

Examples: Neem leaf or seed kernel extract, Garlic extract, Turmeric powder, Cow urine + neem mixture

(iv) Biological Seed Treatment Method

Use of beneficial micro-organisms to protect seeds and improve growth.

Examples: Trichoderma viride, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Bacillus subtilis

✔ Advantages ✘ Disadvantages
1. Improves quality 1. Phytotoxicity: harmful effect of chemical — poor germination, stunted growth
2. Increases shelf life 2. Accidental poisoning: unintentional harmful effect on humans, animals, etc.
3. Improves germination rate 3. Residual effect: effect of chemical remains active
4. Promotes healthy & uniform crop stand 4. Requires skilled handling & equipment
5. Controls pathogens 5. Treated seed cannot be used for feed & food

Classification / Labeling requirements: Certification — Voluntary. Labeling — Compulsory, and must include: crop name, variety, physical & genetic purity,
moisture content, and germination rate.
 5 Seed Storage

Purpose: To maintain the viability of seed.

Reasons for Seed Storage

1. To fill the gap between harvesting and sowing
2. If seed is not sold, it is stored for the next generation

Biofortification — nutrient enrichment; the process of increasing the nutritional value of seed by enhancing the content of essential nutrients.

3. To ensure timely availability of quality seed

4. To balance supply and demand of seed
5. To preserve seed viability until the next sowing season
6. Germplasm conservation (total hereditary material)
7. To provide stock for Foundation Seed (F.S) production if Certified Seed (C.S) crop completely fails

NBPGR — National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (New Delhi). It is the 2nd largest such institution, and is the Indian organisation responsible for collection,
conservation, evaluation, and exchange of plant genetic resources for agriculture.

Seed Multiplication Rate (SMR)

SMR = the number of seeds produced from a single seed. If 1 kg of seed gives rise to a certain quantity of seed, that quantity is called the SMR.

Paddy SMR → 1 : 80

4 kg SMR
Breeder Seed (B.S) → ↓
Foundation Seed I (F.S.I) → Foundation Seed II ([Link])

16 kg SMR ↓ (from F.S.I)

Certified Seed I (C.S.I) → Certified Seed II ([Link])

Fig. Seed multiplication chain from Breeder Seed to Certified Seed

Why is [Link] / [Link] needed?

1. When SMR is low
2. When the demand for seed is high

Where Do We Store Seeds?

Storage Structure Purpose

Godowns / Warehouses For bulk seed storage

Cold storage For maintaining low temperature and humidity

Bins and silos For large quantities of seed

Seed banks / Gene banks For long-term genetic conservation

Moisture-proof containers/bags & Kothi For small-scale storage

Aspergillus and Penicillium are pests/pathogens carried from the field into storage — if a defect is detected, treatment is required.

Fumigation is the process of treating seed in storage with a suitable chemical, either in gaseous or liquid form.

Ex: Aluminium phosphide — active ingredient is Phosphine, which is light in weight and has less effect on seed viability (i.e., less harmful).

Always treat when seed moisture < 12% and room RH < 13%.

Important Factors for Seed Storage

Factor Detail

1. Moisture (9 crop types) Paddy 13% (exception), Soyabean 12%, Oilseed 9%

2. Temperature (most Manages both moisture and RH. Temp ∝ 1/Moisture and Temp ∝ 1/RH. Max storage temp (extreme condition): 43°C. Optimum:
important) 15–18°C

3. Relative Humidity (RH) Amount of moisture present in the air compared to the maximum moisture the air can hold at the same temperature.
Favourable RH: 65%

4. RH & Temperature Both must be jointly regulated

(combined)

Two (Three) Types of Seed Based on Storage Behaviour

Type Storage Condition Examples

 Orthodox seed Stored at low temperature (0–5°C) and low moisture (5%) Paddy, wheat

Recalcitrant seed NOT stored at low temperature/moisture (>30% moisture); horticultural Cocoa, Coconut / Double coconut (Lodoicea) — largest
crops seed

Intermediate seed Can be stored at 20% RH (moisture) Papaya, Neem, Coffee

Smallest Seed Cluster Bean Storability Note

Orchid (Sikkim) Produces gum extract (export commodity) Pulse crops have low storability

Classification of Seed by Storage Duration / Longevity

Storability order: Cereals > Pulses > Oilseeds

Duration Class Time Period

Short term 6 – 8 months

Medium term 12 – 36 months

Long term 5 – 20 years (as per NBPGR)

Cauliflower seed production is concentrated in Himachal Pradesh.

Why is seed production restricted to a particular area/location? To mitigate the adverse effect of climate change and to further boost the availability of quality
hybrid seed in the country. Alternative areas for hybrid seed production, among major crops, have been identified under AICRP – National Seed Project (crops).
Crops are photosensitive and temperature-sensitive, hence require a particular temperature and light regime to yield good-quality seeds.

Suitable Area for Seed Storage — "Degree of Aliveness"

The viability of seeds during storage is affected by a number of separate but interacting factors:
1. Seed moisture (or RH of atmosphere)
2. Storage temperature
3. Gaseous exchange (temperature & respiration)
4. Physical condition of the seed
5. Stage of seed maturity
6. Initial viability and vigour
7. Microflora
8. Insect infestation (chickpea > pea)

(Perpetuator multiplication — pests utilise the protein in the seed to multiply)

Best suitable seed storage condition: Cool & Dry (e.g., Ladakh)
ISTA — International Seed Testing Association, which gives the protocol for seed testing worldwide.
 6 Seed Sampling

Sampling — the withdrawing of a representative sample from a seed lot.

Four Categories of Sample

i. Primary Sample — first-time withdrawing

⬇
ii. Composite Sample — compositing of all
primary samples

⬇
iii. Submitted Sample — composite sample
divided into smaller portions

⬇
iv. Working Sample — sample on which testing
is done (2500 seeds)

Handle Pointed nose

Fig. Trier — the instrument used for withdrawing seed samples

Methods to Reduce Seed Sample Size

(Followed by seed analysis in the laboratory and processing unit)

Mechanical Dividers

i. Conical divider ii. Soil divider iii. Variable sample divider

iv. Centrifugal divider v. Rotary divider

Random Cup Method

A method of sub-sampling in which cups randomly capture a portion of seed as it is poured, to obtain a representative smaller sample.

Hand Halving Method

○ ✗ ○ ✗
→
✗ ○
✗ ○

Fig. Hand-halving — sample

repeatedly quartered/halved to
reduce its size
 7 Seed Testing — Physical Purity (ISTA Protocol)

By Physical Purity
The physical characteristics of all seed in a lot should be the same (i.e., same shape, size, colour).

Diaphanoscope

Lens

Fig. Diaphanoscope — a lens-based

device to view the internal quality /
physical condition of seed against
light

Working sample for the physical purity test = 2000 seeds, divided into three groups (as per ISTA):

i. Pure Seed ii. Other Seed iii. Inert Matter

"Other seed" is further split into: Other crop seeds and Weed seeds. These three components together form the IMSCA component classification.

Physical Purity % = (Total no. of pure seeds ÷ Total no. of seeds) × 100

Paddy standard = 98%

For germination purity testing, the working sample size = 400 seeds.

Six Quality Parameters Tested (as per ISTA)

1. Physical purity
2. Germination % / age
3. Seed viability
4. Moisture estimation
5. Seed vigour
6. Seed health
 8 Germination

Four Factors of Germination

Air (O₂) Water Light Temperature

Germination — the emergence of the radicle (≥ 2 mm) or plumule from the seed.

Germination Type Typical Group Exception

Epigeal Legumes (cotyledons emerge above ground) Pigeon pea

Hypogeal Monocots (cotyledons remain below ground) Onion

Three Phases of Germination

1. Imbibition — rapid uptake of water by the seed
2. Enzyme activation (α-amylase & β-amylase)
3. Radicle emergence (≥2 mm) — leads to rupturing of the seed coat
Uptake of H₂O (fresh wt. of seed)

③ Radicle Protrusion
② Lag Phase (Enzyme activation)

① Imbibition

Seed germination time →

Fig. Triphasic Pattern of Seed Germination

Substrates Used for Germination Testing

1. Top of paper
2. Between the paper
3. Pleated paper
4. Soil
5. Sand (90% of the sand must pass through a 2 mm sieve)

400 seeds required, in 4 replications — 4 plates of 100 seeds each. Germination must be tested under regulated temperature and RH conditions.

Evaluation of Germination Test

Germinated Seed

↙ ↘
Normal seed: intact seedling, slight defect, secondary infection Abnormal seed: damaged, decayed, or deformed seed (stunted growth)

Non-Germinated Seed Hard seed Dead seed Fresh ungerminated seed (Ex: Trifolium)

Germination % age = (Total no. of normal germinated seed ÷ Total no. of seed) × 100
 9 Tetrazolium (Viability) Test & Seed Dormancy

Tetrazolium test is conducted in dark conditions for 2 hours. The tetrazolium reagent helps differentiate between the dormant (living — embryo turns pink) and
dead seed. It is also used to check rapid viability and dormancy.

Chemical: 2,3,5-Triphenyl Tetrazolium Chloride or Bromide → reaction produces red / pink colour in living tissue.
Viability is checked before germination testing.

Dehydrogenase enzyme
TTC (colourless) Formazan (Red / Pink)
→
(respiration) : 2e⁻ + 2H⁺
2,3,5-Triphenyl tetrazolium chloride/bromide — indicates a living, respiring embryo

Fig. Chemical basis of the Tetrazolium (TTC) viability test

Quiescence vs. Dormancy

Condition Seed Response Phase

Unfavourable condition Seed does not germinate Quiescent phase

Favourable condition Seed still does not germinate Dormancy phase

Reasons for Dormancy & Correction

Type of Dormancy Cause Correction

Physical dormancy Hard seed coat Scarification, Stratification

Physiological dormancy Rudimentary / unfunctional embryo Application of GA₃ (Gibberellic acid)

 10 Moisture Estimation

Routine Test (Drying → Hot Air Oven)

1. One-Stage Drying

Symbol Meaning

W₁ Weight of can without seed (g)

W₂ Weight of can with seed before drying

W₃ Weight of can with seed after drying

Moisture content (%) = [(W₂ – W₃) ÷ (W₂ – W₁)] × 100

2. Two-Stage Drying

Symbol Meaning

S₁ Seeds before pre-drying (g)

S₂ Seeds after pre-drying (g)

Moisture content (%) = S₁ + S₂ – (S₁ × S₂ ÷ 100)

Oven Constant Temp. & Duration Applicable Crops

Low temperature constant 80°C ± 1 hr General

High temperature constant 130°C ± 2 hr Maize, Rice, Wheat

Preference Methods

Method Detail

Phosphorus pentoxide method Temperature: 64.5°C

Karl Fischer method Uses IOI reagent (Iodine + reagent)

Moisture Meter Method

Fast, non-destructive, and easy to use on-site at processing plants or in the field. It measures the electrical properties (conductivity) of the seed.

Seed Blending
Based on physical purity and germination percentage.

Seed lot A → 70% (standard = 80%); Seed lot B → 95%

70 A

15 parts of A

80

10 parts of B

95 B

Fig. Pearson Square Method — used

for blending two seed lots to a
target purity

Coriander takes 15–20 days to germinate; germination becomes faster after soaking.
 11 Pre-Sowing Seed Treatments

Pre-treated seed: An application of a pesticide, or subjecting seed to a process, designed to reduce, control, or repel disease organisms, insects, or other pests
which attack the seed or seedlings.

Seed treatment is done to increase quality and control pests & diseases.

Types of Seed Treatment

1. Pre-Sowing Seed Treatments
Treatments given to seed before sowing, to improve germination and vigour potential, and also to maintain the health of the seed.
1. Chemical treatments to improve germination and vigour potential
2. Insecticidal and fungicidal treatment
3. Special treatments

(i) Chemical Treatment

For diseases such as blast and blight — uses Hexaconazole and Propiconazole. Also includes soaking / treating the seeds with nutrients.

(ii) Insecticidal & Fungicidal Treatment

Seed health is an important attribute of quality seed — the presence or absence of disease in, on, or with the seed can be termed as "seed health".

Term Meaning

In Infection

On Seed infestation

With Concomitant contamination

Seed protectants (insecticides & fungicides) are used if the seed is contaminated with seed-borne pathogens and/or insect pests.

Ex: Captan (2–3 g per kg of seed), Thairam, Carbendazim

Benefits: Prevents the spread of plant disease, and protects the seed from seed rot.

Definitions Recap

Term Meaning

Seed disinfection Elimination of a pathogen which has penetrated into the living cells of the seed, infected it, and become established. Ex: Loose
smut of barley & wheat

Seed disinfestation Control of spores or other forms of pathogenic organisms found on the surface of the seed

Seed protection Chemical treatment to protect the seed and young seedling from pathogenic organisms present in the soil

Seed treatment material formulations applied to seed: Dust, Slurry, Liquid, and Planter-box formulation

Difference between Crop Production & Seed Production

Aspect Detail

Selection of site Requires 10% extra land/area compared to crop production

Selection of seed Requires careful varietal selection

Seed testing, processing & packaging Involves extra cost compared to crop production
(impervious)

These additional steps determine the economics of seed production, which is generally higher than that of ordinary crop production.
 12 Seed Marketing

Communication & Distribution Channels

Why Is Distribution Essential?

1. Crops are specific to a certain agroclimatic condition for seed production
2. To transfer the seed from the place it is produced to the place where it is needed — this is done through a distribution channel

Types of Distribution / Marketing Channels

Channel Description

Formal Public board — like state and central government — are involved through their own distribution system (State Dept. of Agriculture, District
Ag. Dept.). There is a clear-cut, strict distribution channel.

Semiformal NGOs, cooperatives, SHGs, etc. — they form groups of farmers who produce seed. This is an intermediate channel.

Informal General public; government is not involved. There is no clear-cut distribution channel.

Communication is the first step in seed marketing, and it is done in advance — providing information about the area, purchasing power/economic power, and
variety.

Essentials of Selling Seeds

1. Attract potential buyers
2. With seed available, appeal to the buyer's need
3. Establish direct contact with the buyer
4. Use knowledge of the improved variety to make the sale
5. Help the buyer recognize the value of good seed of improved varieties
6. Give the buyer as much service as possible (germination %, disease resistance, etc.)

Market Demand — the total volume of a product that will be bought by consumers using a specific technology, in a defined location, within a specific period
(season), and with a certain marketing effort (communication).

Factors Affecting Demand

1. Crop, variety, and quality of seed
2. Desire or needs of the farmer
3. Geographical location
4. Seed rate

Demand Forecast: Understanding the present conditions and predicting future demand.
Key elements: Communication, Public Relations, Distribution

Distribution completes the process that converts the physical and biological properties of the seed produced into economic value for the seller.

Marketing Channel for Seed

Seed Grower / Seller → Accumulator Wholesaler → Intermediate Wholesaler → Retail Dealer → Seed Consumer

(with feedback/demand information flowing back through the chain)

Forecasting market demand for individual seed enterprises is based on what people say, what people do, and what people have done.

Seed Lot Number System

A Lot Number has 4 components:
1. Month and year code — Ex: Nov-26
2. Production location code — Ex: 04 (Bihar)
3. Processing location unit code — Ex: 074 (RCA Dholi)
4. Seed produce unit — Ex: 03 (Godown or state)

Lot No. = Nov-26 – 04 – 074 – 03 (III)

Seed Certification Agency (BSSOCA) — Bihar State Seed and Organic Certification Agency, located at Patna.
 13 Seed Vigour

1000-seed weight is used as the test weight (e.g., DBT-5204 — a paddy variety ).

Types of Seed Vigour Tests

Test Category Parameters Measured

Physical test Shape, size, test weight, volume

Physiological test Germination %age, mean germination time, germination index, shoot length, speed of germination

Bio-chemical test Electrical conductivity, Tetrazolium test (seed soaked in water for 17–18 hr)

Stress test pH test, Cool test, Wool test, Brick-gravel test

Seed Vigour Indices

Seed Vigour Index I (S.V.I) = Germination %age × Seedling length (cm)

Seed Vigour Index II ([Link]) = Germination %age × Dry matter weight (mg)

No unit for seed vigour indices.

Dry matter: oven-dried seedling weight [oven at 80°C for 1–1.5 hrs]. Seedling length: measured at final count — Paddy: 14 days [1st count: radicle ≥ 2 mm, visible
to the naked eye].

Final Count Criteria

At final count — all seeds have germinated, and both the radicle and plumule are well developed.

Crop Days to Final Count

Paddy 14 days

Moong bean 7 days

Lot A – 90
5 → Lot D

5 → Lot C

Lot B – 80 85

15 → Lot B

Lot C – 70 → Lot A

Lot D – 60

Fig. Illustrative example — averaging germination % from four seed lots (A, B, C, D = 90, 80, 70, 60) using a square-method construction

Note: Germination first count / final count is expressed as a ratio (e.g., first-count value over final-count value) to determine seedling length and the speed of germination.
 14 Seed Health

Seed health means resisting the seed from day-to-day deterioration — i.e., the absence of any bacterial, fungal spore, or (soil-borne) pathogen.

Tests used to measure seed health:

(i) Conventional Methods

Visual method
Histo-pathological test
Washing test (detects genetic material/spores of bacteria that move during microscopic observation)
X-ray radiography (detects mechanical damage, insects — intact vs. moved)
Electron microscopy (detects spores)
NaOH test (for loose smut — a designated disease)

(ii) Serological Method

(Detects genetic material via enzyme-based reactions)
ELISA test (for viruses) — based on Antibody–Antigen reaction
Lateral flow test (for viruses)

(iii) Molecular Test

PCR test
 15 Pests of Stored Grain — Insects, Rodents & Fungi

Categories of Storage Pests

i. Insects ii. Pathogens (Fungi) iii. Rodents iv. Birds

(i) Insects

Crop Common Pests

Wheat Granary weevil, Indian meal moth

Rice Red flour beetle, Rice weevil

Pulses Lesser grain borer, Saw-toothed grain beetle

Common Post-Harvest Insects (Scientific Names)

Common Name Scientific Name

Lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha dominica

Rice weevil Sitophilus oryzae

Angoumois grain moth Sitotroga cerealella

Red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum

Life cycle duration: Beetles → 15–18 days; Moths → 28–35 days

Cereal & Pulse Vegetables & Fruits Most Dangerous Pest

High volume, low value seed/produce High value, low volume produce Khapra beetle — most dangerous pest in rice
storage

Management of Stored Grain

1. Proper harvesting & drying
2. Maintain grain moisture content at 12–14%
3. Minimize cracked and broken grain during processing
4. Don't mix old and new grain

Key storage factors: moisture of seed, RH of the godown, and temperature

Cleaning & Disinfecting the Storage System

Clean storage containers, structures, equipment & bags
Treat with insecticide:
Malathion (50 EC) @ 5 ml / 20 L of water
Fenitrothion (50 EC) @ 5 ml / L of water
Deltamethrin 2.5% (WP) @ 1.5 g / L of water

Treat infected grain

Rodents (Rats & Mice)

Species Scientific Name

Black rat / House rat Rattus rattus

Norway rat / Common rat Rattus norvegicus

House mouse Mus musculus

Damage caused: Feed on grain — rats consume ~25 g of food per day; mice consume 3–4 g per day. Causes spoilage and contamination of grains.

Rat Management
Keep the store clean — remove any spilt grain
Store bags in tidy stacks, set up on pallets away from walls
Keep the area surrounding the store free of tall weeds
Keep the area in the vicinity of the store free of any stagnant water

Fungi
Most common: Aspergillus and Penicillium — cause grain spoilage and produce mycotoxins (poisonous).
Determined by:
Moisture content
Temperature
Condition of grain going into storage
Length of time the grain is stored
Amount of insect & mite activity in the grain
MAP = Modified Atmospheric Packaging

Control Measures
Maintain moisture content at 12–14%; dry heat at 60°C for 6 days
Hot water treatment at 52–55°C
Fungicides: Dithane M-45 and Benlate @ 3 g/kg (effective against lower fungi)

Storage Hygiene
Keep areas clean
Place rat traps & barriers in the drying and storage areas
Regular inspection

Priority Management Options (in order)

1. Good hygiene — cleanliness in store, clean bags
2. Hermetic storage
3. Bag dipping
4. Phosphine tablets
5. Fumigation — last resort

— End of Compiled Notes — Seed Technology —