Chapter 2

Methods of psychological enquiry

Psychology is a science that studies mental processes, experiences, and human behaviour in different
contexts. Psychologists use different procedures to study mental processes, behaviour & experiences.
This procedure of research is “the methods of enquiry in psychology."
Goals of psychological enquiry
Psychological research or enquiry has the following goals.
1. Description
It is very important in a scientific enquiry to describe the behaviour or a phenomenon accurately. This
helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other behaviours. Description involves defining what
the behaviour is and how it manifests, distinguishing it from other similar behaviours. The recording of
an event or behaviour is an integral part of a description, which will help in its proper understanding. In
this, the researchers try to be as objective as possible to avoid personal bias.
For example, if a psychologist were studying “exam anxiety," they would describe the specific symptoms:
Do the students’ hands shake? Do they report a racing heart? Do they forget information they previously
knew? The goal is to provide a comprehensive “picture” of the anxiety.
2. Prediction
Prediction is forecasting of events or behaviour. It establishes a relationship between two variables. i.e.,
it understands a particular behaviour in relationship to other behaviours or events. By understanding the
relationship between different variables, the researcher can forecast future outcomes.
For example, after describing exam anxiety, a researcher might notice it happens more often when
students have not slept well. They can then predict, “If a student receives less than five hours of sleep
before an exam, their anxiety levels will likely be higher.”
Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of individuals observed.
3. Explanation
Explanation involves knowing the cause or the reason behind the behaviour. It also tries to understand
the conditions under which a particular behaviour occurs and does not occur. For example, why does lack
of sleep cause anxiety? The explanation might involve biological factors (like increased cortisol level) or
cognitive factors (like reduced ability to concentrate, leading to panic).
This goal is concerned with identifying the determinants or antecedent conditions of the behaviour being
studied so that a cause-effect relationship between two variables or events could be established.
4. Control of behaviour
"Control" means creating change in the phenomenon or behaviour or the ability to influence the
behaviour. Being able to explain the cause of a behaviour can lead to the control of the behaviour by
making changes in its antecedent conditions. This can involve three things: making a behaviour happen,
reducing or stopping it, or changing its frequency or intensity. This phase is where research becomes
active rather than just observational.
For example, if we know that deep breathing reduces cortisol, we can teach students "control"
techniques. By practicing these exercises, the student can actively reduce (control) their physical anxiety
symptoms during the test.
5. Application of knowledge
The final goal of psychological enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of people. Psychological
research is often conducted to solve various problems in different settings. Psychology helps in solving
problems at the individual, organizational, or community level.
For example, a school might use the research on exam anxiety to change their scheduling, ensuring
students have a “prep day” with no classes before finals to encourage better sleep and lower stress levels.
Application of yoga and meditation helps to reduce stress and increase efficiency of individuals.
Goal Key question focus
Description What is happening? Identifying and defining behaviour.
Prediction When will it happen Identifying relationships between variables
Explanation Why is it happening? Finding the cause and effect link
Control Can we change it? Modifying or influencing the behaviour
Application How can we use this? Solving real-life problems
Steps in conducting scientific research.
The scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an objective, systematic,
and testable manner. Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more persons independently study a
particular event, both should arrive at the same conclusion. The scientific research follows a systematic
procedure or series of investigative steps.
A. Conceptualization of problem
The process of scientific research begins when a researcher selects a theme or topic for study and
develops specific research questions or problems for the study. This is based on a review of previous
research, observational data, and the researcher's own experiences.
For example, what is the relationship between reward and classroom learning?
After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative answer to the
problem, which is called a hypothesis. Through research, the goal is to determine whether the formulated
hypothesis or theory is true or false.
For example, an increased amount of reward will lead to betterment in learning.
In psychological research, the problems may be related to understanding our own behaviour,
understanding other individuals’ behaviour, group influences on individuals’ behaviour, group behaviour
and organizational behaviour.
B. Collecting data
The second step in scientific research is to collect data. Data collection requires developing a research
design or a blueprint of the entire study. It requires taking decisions about the following four aspects:
(a) participants in the study, (b) methods of data collection, (c) tools to be used in research, and (d)
procedure for data collection.
Depending upon the nature of the study, the researcher has to decide who would be the participants (or
informants) in the study. The second decision is related to the use of methods of data collection, such as
observation method, experimental method, correlational method, case study, etc. The researcher needs
to decide about appropriate tools for data collection. The researcher also decides about how the tools
need to be administered to collect data (i.e. individual or group). This is followed by actual collection of
data.
C. Drawing conclusions
The next step involves analyzing the collected data using statistical procedures to gain a deeper
understanding of its significance. This analysis can be conducted through graphical representations,
including pie charts and bar diagrams, as well as various statistical methods. These approaches help verify
the hypothesis and allow for drawing conclusions within an appropriate context.
D. Revising research conclusions
The research begins with a hypothesis. The researcher evaluates whether the conclusions support this
hypothesis. If the hypothesis or theory is supported, it is confirmed. If it is not confirmed, the researcher
revises the hypothesis or proposes an alternative hypothesis and tests it again. This process continues in
a cycle. Therefore, research is an ongoing process.
Alternative paradigms of research
Psychologists propose that human behavior ought to be examined using the methodologies of sciences
such as chemistry, physics, and biology. This premise implies that human behavior is predictable,
influenced by both internal and external factors, and can be observed, measured, and controlled. To
achieve these goals until the 20th century, psychology limited its focus to the study of observable
behavior. Scientific research emphasizes explanation and prediction, often overlooking personal feelings,
experiences, and meanings.
The interpretive method emphasizes understanding over explanation and prediction. This viewpoint
emphasizes the importance of the subjectivity of experiences—how human beings give meaning to
events and actions and interpret them as they occur in a particular context. Individual experiences may
be due to external and internal factors. In such types of situations, objective measurement is neither
possible nor desirable. Everyone interprets reality in her or his own way based on experiences and
contexts. In the interpretive method, the goal is to explore the different aspects of human experiences
and behavior without attempting to disturb its natural flow.
Both scientific and interpretive traditions are concerned with studying behaviour and experiences of
others. The psychological enquiry does aim at understanding the self by reflecting on one’s own
experiences and insights.
Nature of psychological data
Data is any information related to individuals’ mental processes, experiences, and behaviour, collected
by using various tools. It forms an important input in psychology. The characteristics of psychological data
can be outlined through the following points.
 Psychological data are not independent entities. The physical or social context, the persons
involved, and the time of the behaviour affects the data.
 The quality and nature of data are affected by the method of data collection. It is possible that
while conducting a personal interview, an individual provides answers that are different from his
or her behaviour or as observed by the researcher.
  Data are facts without any meaning. This suggests that data do not speak about reality; they only
acquire meaning when placed in a context by the researcher.
Types of data
Psychological data are of different types, such as
1. Demographic information
This information includes personal information related to a particular individual. This includes name, age,
gender, education, marital status, residence, caste, religion, income, etc., which are personally relevant.
2. Physical information
This includes information pertaining to the physical environment, that is, ecological conditions (hill,
desert, and forest). It also includes information about the economy, housing conditions, facilities at the
home, in the school, transportation, etc.
3. Physiological data
This is related to biological data related to height, weight, heart rate, level of fatigue, ECG, reaction time,
sleep, blood pressure, etc. that is collected.
4. Psychological information
This includes data regarding the psychological functioning of individuals. It includes data about
intelligence, personality, attitudes, values, emotions, motivation, psychological dysfunctions,
consciousness, etc.
Methods in psychology
In psychological studies, a variety of data is collected. However, these varieties of data cannot be collected
through a single method of enquiry. Psychologists use various methods like observation, experimental,
correlational, survey, psychological testing, and case study to collect data.

Observational method
Observation serves as a highly effective tool in psychological inquiry. The observational method is an
effective method involving systematic observation and recording of behavior in natural or controlled
settings. It is a method of describing behaviour.
A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in many aspects. To make an observation
scientific, a researcher follows three steps. They are,
1. Selection
Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. They select a particular behavior for
observation. For example, researchers can observe how children in class 8 spend their time at school.
Here, the researcher can make a list of activities and go to a school with a view to finding out their
occurrences. Otherwise, he/she can go to a school and discover by observation.
2. Recording
While observing, a researcher records the selected behavior using different means, such as making tallies
for the already identified behavior whenever it occurs, taking notes describing each activity in detail,
video recording, taking photographs, etc.
3. Analysis of data
Psychologists analyze the data with a view to derive some meaning out of it. Observation is a skill.
Observation involves selecting, recording, and interpreting behavior scientifically.

Types of observation
I. Based on mode of observation
A. Naturalistic observation occurs in natural or real-life settings without any interference. In this type
of observation, observers do not attempt to control or manipulate the situation. Naturalistic observation
can take place in various environments, such as hospitals, homes, schools, and railway stations. An
example of this is watching children play in a park.
B. Controlled laboratory observation involves conducting observations in a laboratory or under planned
conditions. In this setting, observers have significant control over extraneous variables. The researchers
set the goals and procedures for the observation beforehand.
For instance, a psychologist may study the aggressive behavior of children in a playgroup, with specific
objectives determined beforehand.
II. Based on the investigator's role
A. Participant observation involves the investigator actively engaging in the activities of the group being
studied. The investigator either may already be a member of the group or may choose to join it for the
purpose of observation. The group may or may not know the observer's identity. This method typically
employs an unstructured observation procedure.
Example: A researcher joining a group of monks and living their lifestyle to understand their disciplined
life.
B. Non-participant observation involves observing a group in a natural setting without actively
participating in their activities. This method is typically structured and may utilize various tools, such as
video cameras and one-way mirrors, to capture the events. Observers may also choose to watch from a
distance.
Example: The principal is watching the activities of students in the playground through CCTV.
Advantages of the observation method
 It enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour directly in naturalistic situations as
it occurs.
 Results are close to reality and can be generalized.
 Helpful when people cannot express feelings clearly.
 No language barrier. So it can be used with infants or animals.
 Focuses on actual behavior, not just verbal responses.
Disadvantages of the observation method
 The method is time-consuming, labor-intensive, and susceptible to the observer’s bias.
 Behaviour may change if people know they are being watched.
 Observation can be influenced by the researcher's values and beliefs about the person or event.
To avoid the observer being biased, he or she should record the behaviour as it happens and should not
interpret the behaviour at the time of observation itself.
Experimental Method
A method in psychological research that involves the manipulation of one or more variables to observe
their effects on another variable. Experiments are conducted to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
between two sets of events or variables in a controlled environment. In these experiments, the cause is
the event that is changed or manipulated, while the effect is the behavior that changes because of that
manipulation.
Variables and its kinds
A variable is any factor or condition that can be measured, controlled, or changed in an experiment, which
may influence the study's outcome. Examples include intelligence, height, and weight.
There are three types of variables.
1. Independent variable
The variable that is systematically manipulated or altered in an experiment is called the independent
variable. It is the cause. To study the effect of noise on learning speed, noise serves as the independent
variable. This variable can be manipulated by adjusting the levels of sound, ranging from low to high, or
by eliminating sound.
2. Dependent variable
The variable on which the effect of the independent variable is observed is called the dependent variable.
It represents the phenomenon the researcher desires to explain. In a study examining the impact of noise
on learning speed, the speed of learning serves as the dependent variable, which can be quantified by
measuring the time taken to acquire new information.
3. Extraneous variables
Any variable other than the independent variable that influences the dependent variable is called an
extraneous variable. Alternatively, they are the other variables that may affect the result but are not the
focus of the study.
For example, in the above problem of studying, the effect of noise on speed of learning, there are many
other variables that might affect the speed of learning (dependent variable), like level of intelligence,
emotional state of the person, individual differences in learning, difficulty level of learning materials, etc.
There are three types of extraneous variables.
 Organismic variables – intelligence, aptitude, anxiety, personality, etc.
 Situational or environmental variables – noise, temperature, humidity, etc.
 Sequential variables - practice effect, experimental fatigue
These extraneous variables need to be controlled in an experiment so that the researcher can pinpoint
the cause-and-effect relationship between independent and dependent variables. The techniques to
control the extraneous variables are
 Elimination: It refers to blocking any chance of occurrence of extraneous variable. Example:
conducting an experiment in a soundproof and air-conditioned room to eliminate the effect of
noise and temperature. When elimination is not possible, the variables are kept constant
throughout the experiment. That is ensuring that all participants experience the same
environment.
 Matching: This procedure ensures that the experimental and control groups are equivalent on a
specific trait that might influence the outcome of the study. In other words, the relevant variables
in the two groups are equated or are held constant by taking matched pairs across conditions of
the experiment. For example, gender, living status, etc.
 Counter balancing technique: This is used to minimize the sequence effect or order effect.
Instead of giving tasks in the same order to the group, the order may be interchanged. Thus, if A
and B are tasks, half of the group may receive the tasks in the order of A & B while the other half
in order of B & A. If the task is to be given to the same individual it can be given in A, B, B, A order.
  Random assignment of participants to different groups eliminates any potential systematic
differences between groups. (Random method is a method that ensures that each person has
equal chance of being included in any of the groups)
Advantages
 It can provide convincing evidence of a cause effect relationship between two or more variables.
 Researchers have high levels of control over the experiment
 Because the procedure is standardized, other researchers can easily repeat the study.
Disadvantages
 Experiments may produce results that do not generalize well or apply to real situations. That is,
they have no external validity.
 It is not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally. Or some variable cannot be
manipulated(Causing stress or trauma intentionally)
 It is difficult to know and control all relevant variables.
Experimental and control groups
An experimental group is a group in which members of the group are exposed to independent variable
manipulation. A control group is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental
group except that the manipulated variable is absent in it. Still in an experiment, except for the
experimental manipulation, other conditions are kept constant for both the experimental and control
groups.
To ensure that both groups are equal at the beginning of the experiment, participants either are assigned
to the experimental or control group randomly. This random assignment provides each participant with
an equal opportunity to be placed in either group.
Types of Experiments
1. Field experiments
A field experiment is conducted in a real-life or natural setting rather than in a laboratory. The researcher
still manipulates the independent variable but studies behavior in a more natural environment. This
increases ecological validity (real-world relevance), though control over variables is lower.
Example: Studying how people react to helping behavior in a busy marketplace by varying the situation
(e.g., someone dropping books).
The advantages of this type of experiment are
 They have high external validity; that is, since they are carried out in natural settings, they are
close to reality and can be generalized. The subjects are not aware of their states as subjects, so
they are not conscious of behaving in a desired manner. The cause-and-effect relationship can be
studied.
The limitations are
 Not all the extraneous variables can be controlled, and it is time-consuming and expensive.
2. Quasi-experiments
Many variables cannot be manipulated in laboratory settings. Quasi-experiments are conducted under
completely natural settings when the event has already taken place, but its consequences persist. Here
the independent variable is selected rather than varied or manipulated. Experimental and control groups
naturally occur rather than being created.
For example, after the tsunami tragedy, many psychologists went to study the aftereffects of this disaster
on the people living there. A quasi-experiment attempts to manipulate an independent variable in a
natural setting using naturally occurring groups to form experimental and control groups.
The advantage of quasi experiment is that it is conducted where variables cannot be manipulated, and
the external validity is high.
The limitation is that they lack a high degree of control over extraneous variables.
Correlational Method
The correlation method is a research method in which researchers attempt to determine whether and to
what extent different variables are related to each other. It does not show the cause-and-effect
relationship. The researcher does not manipulate the variables. They simply observe and record the data
in correlational research. For example, correlation can be used to study the relationship between the
amount of study time spent and the academic achievement of students.
A numerical value known as the correlation coefficient represents the strength and direction of the
relationship between the two variables. Its value can range from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0. The closer the
number is to 1 (either positive or negative), the stronger the relationship. A value of ‘0’ indicates no
correlation.
The coefficient of correlation is of three types.
Positive correlation
It indicates that an increase or decrease in one variable leads to an increase or decrease in another
variable too. Both variables move in the same direction. For example, as the level of intelligence increases,
the adjustment level also improves and vice versa.
Negative correlation
It indicates that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases. Variables
move in the opposite directions.
For example, as the level of intelligence increases, the adjustment level decreases. Sometimes highly
intelligent individuals are not well adjusted.
Zero correlation
It indicates that no relation exists between the two variables. It is difficult to find zero correlation.
Example: Shoe size and intelligence.
The correlation method helps in prediction. However, it cannot prove that one variable causes the other.
Correlation is used in cases where the experimental study is not possible. Because some variables cannot
be manipulated. It is often used as a first step to see if a relationship exists before conducting a costly or
complex experiment.
Survey research
Survey research is a systematic method for getting information from a sample of individuals to describe,
compare, or explain their knowledge, attitudes, opinions, and behaviour. Survey research came into
existence to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts. The main concern was to find out the existing
reality. This method can be used in a political regime to know whether people approve or disapprove of
any policy of government. In the marketing area before launching a product, surveys are often conducted.
The survey research uses different techniques for collecting information. Some of these techniques are
personal interview, questionnaire, telephone interview, and controlled observations.
Personal interview
An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive information, opinions, attitudes, and reasons for
particular behaviour. It is generally conducted face-to-face, but sometimes it can also take place over the
phone. Example: Doctor to patient to gather information, employment interview.
The person who asks the question is called the interviewer, and the other person who answers the
question is called the interviewee.
There are two types of interviews: structured or standardized and unstructured or non-standardized
interviews.
A structured interview is one where the questions in the schedule are written clearly in a particular
sequence. The interviewer has no liberty to make changes in the wordings of the question and the
sequence of the order. Closed-ended questions are used in structured interviews. For example, do you
feel stressed during exams? Yes/No.
In an unstructured interview, the interviewer has the flexibility to decide on the questions to be asked,
as well as how to phrase them and the order in which they are presented. Here open-ended questions
are used. Example: What are your interests?
An interview can be conducted in various ways.
 Individual to individual
 Individual to group example, film promotion interview on television
 Group to individuals Example: Job interview
 Group to group example: student council members to a class of students about their requirements
in the school.
The advantages of an interview are that it helps in obtaining in-depth information. It is flexible and
adaptable to individual situations and can often be used when other methods are impossible. It can also
be conducted with children and individuals who are non-literate. Higher response rate.
The disadvantage is that it is time consuming and expensive. Respondents may give socially desirable
answers. Open-ended responses are difficult to compare and interpret.

Questionnaire survey
It consists of a predetermined set of questions which the respondents must read and answer on paper. It
can be distributed to a large group of people at a time or can be sent by mail. It is always structured. Both
open-ended and closed-ended questions can be used. It is used to collect demographic information,
attitudes, opinions, expectations etc.
Telephonic survey
Here the survey is conducted by telephone and nowadays the views of the respondents are sent through
SMS and online. Telephonic survey helps in reducing time.
The disadvantage of it is the respondents do not know the interviewer and hence may be reluctant or
uncooperative in answering or they may give superficial answers. There is also a possibility that those
responding may differ by age, gender etc.
Advantages and disadvantages of survey method
Information can be gathered quickly and efficiently from thousands of people. Since surveys can be
conducted quickly, public opinions on new issues can be obtained almost as soon as the issues arise.
A major disadvantage of survey method is that people may give inaccurate information and they
sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear.
Psychological testing
Psychologists have constructed different types of tests for the assessment of various human
characteristics such as intelligence, aptitude, personality, attitudes, etc.
Psychological tests serve as objective and standardized tools designed to evaluate an individual's standing
in comparison to others regarding various mental or behavioral characteristics. It is important that the
characteristic for which the test has been developed should be defined clearly and unambiguously, and
all items (questions) should be related to that characteristic only. The test should be meant for a particular
age group. It may or may not have a fixed time limit for answering the questions.
Characteristics of psychological testing
Objectivity and standardization are the two characteristics of psychological tests. Objectivity refers to the
fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test on the same group of people, both
will come up with the same values for each person in the group.
Standardization refers to uniformity in instruction, administration, and scoring of the test. It involves
establishing the time allotted for the testing and the order in which items are presented.
Characteristics of a standardized test
The characteristics of a standardized test are as follows.
1. Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on different
occasions. For this purpose, we can compute test-retest reliability, which indicates the temporal stability
or stability of the test scores over time. It is measured by administering a test twice at two different
points. It is calculated by determining the correlation coefficient between the two sets of scores obtained
from the same group of individuals. It assumes that there will be no change in the quality. Another kind
of test reliability is called "split-half reliability"; it gives an indication about the degree of internal
consistency of the test. It checks whether all items in a test measure the same thing. Instead of requiring
respondents to take the same test twice, the test is divided into two halves to determine whether the
scores on both halves correlate. If a strong correlation exists between the two halves, it suggests that the
test is consistently measuring the same construct.
2. Validity
For a test to be usable, it must be valid. Validity looks for accuracy. Validity refers to the question, "Does
the test measure what it claims to measure?” Otherwise, how effectively does a test measure what it was
designed to assess?" For example, if a test is for assessment of intelligence, it should only be testing
intelligence and not aptitude.
3. Norms
The test becomes standardized if norms are developed for it. Norm is the normal average performance
of the group. It helps in comparison and interpretation of an individual's performance in relation to the
overall standards of the group. It also helps in interpreting individuals’ scores obtained on a test.
Types of tests
Psychological tests are classified based on their language, mode of administration, and difficulty level.
 Based on language
· Verbal tests—a verbal test demands understanding of written words. Responses are also written.
Therefore, they can be administered to literates only.
· Non-verbal tests—in non-verbal tests, items are made of symbols or pictures. The use of language is
restricted to the instructions provided only.
· Performance tests—they use concrete objects like blocks or puzzles. Testing requires physical
manipulation of the material in a particular order. They do not involve language.
 Based on mode of administration
· Individual tests—they are given to only one person at a time. There is face-to-face interaction involved
in individual tests. They can be answered orally or in written form or by manipulating an object as in
performance tests. They are used for diagnosis and remediation of individuals' learning difficulties. They
are time-consuming but are important ways of getting responses from children and from those who do
not know the language.
· Group tests—they are administered to many people. They involve multiple-choice objective
questions. Instructions about answering the items are written on the test, which the test taker reads
himself or herself and answers the questions accordingly. They are used for mass screening. They are easy
to administer and less time-consuming and economical. A disadvantage is that the respondent may not
be motivated enough to answer the questions and may give fake responses.
 Based on difficulty level
· Speed test - In these tests there is a time limit to answer all the items. Evaluation is based on the time
taken to answer the items accurately. All the items in the speed test are of the same difficulty level.
· Power test—it assesses the underlying ability or power of the individual. These tests do not have time
limits, and the items are arranged in an increasing order of difficulty. For example, Raven’s Progressive
Matrices (RPM).
It is difficult to construct a pure speed or power test. The majority of the tests are a combination of both
speed and power.
The test user or the decision maker should not rely on any single test. Test data should be combined with
information about a person’s background, interests, and past performance.
Case study
This method emphasizes the in-depth study of a specific case. A case study utilizes various methods to
gather information, including interviews, observations, and psychological tests. These methods involve a
range of respondents who may be connected to the case and can offer valuable insights. Case studies
provide a narrative or detailed descriptions of the events that take place in a person’s life.
A case study is a valuable research tool in the field of clinical psychology and human development. In the
case study, an individual is taken as the unit of analysis. Focus is directed to a particular case and not the
method of analysis. Various methods of analysis are combined to gain information. A case study may
utilize interviews, observations, and psychological tests. Multiple sources of information are used in case
studies. They should not be generalized as they depict the life history of a particular person. Those unique
aspects of a person's life, which cannot be duplicated for practical or ethical reasons, are captured by a
case study. In a case study, careful planning of data collection is also very necessary. Throughout the
process of data collection, the researcher is required to maintain a chain of evidence for linking various
data sources bearing on the research questions. It is desirable that researchers should not depend upon
only one method. Using a combination of two or more methods is essential for obtaining an accurate
understanding of the situation.