Elements of system analysis:

SAD-Elements of a System

 Outputs and inputs.

 Processors.
 Control.
 Feedback.
 Environment.
 Boundaries and interface.

NOTE:

SAD-Elements of a System
The key elements of a system are

1. Outputs and inputs

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] and interface

OUTPUTS AND INPUTS

Inputs are the information or elements that we enter the system for processing. Output is the
outcome of processing.

A major objective of a system is to produce an output that has value to its user. Whatever the
nature of the output it must be in line with the expectations of the intended user.
A system feeds on input to produce output.

PROCESSOR

The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformations of input into
output. It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input totally or
partially, depending on the specifications of the output.

CONTROL

The control element guides the system. It is the decision-making subsystem that controls the
pattern of activities governing input, processing and output. In an organization context,

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 management as a decision making body controls the inflow, handling and outflow of activities
that affect the welfare of the business. In a computer system, the operating system and
accompanying software influence the behavior of the system.

Output specifications determine what and how much input is needed to keep the system in
balance.

FEEDBACK

Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback. Feedback measures output against a

standard procedure that includes communication and control.

After the output is compared against performance standards, changes can result in the input or
processing and consequently the output.

Feedback can be positive or negative. Positive feedback reinforces the performance of the
system. Negative feedback provides some information for action that will help us to improve the
quality of the output.

ENVIRONMENT

The environment is the area where the organization operates.

It is the source of external elements for a system.

It often determines how a system must function. An environment may consist of vendors,
competitors etc.

BOUNDARIES AND INTERFACE

Boundaries are the limits that identify a system’s components, processes, and interrelationships
when it interfaces with another system. A system should be defined by its boundaries.

NOTE:

SAD-Characteristics of a System
There are five types of characteristics for a system. They are

1. Organization
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
5. A central objective

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ORGANIZATION:

Organization implies structure and order. It can also be defined as the arrangement of components that
helps to achieve objectives.

For e.g.: - in the design of a business system, the hierarchical relationships starting with the president on
top and leading towards the workers represents the organization structure. So this gives the authority
structure and specifies the formal flow of communication.

Likewise a computer system is designed around an input device, a central processing unit, an output
device and one or more storage units.

INTERACTION:

Interaction refers to the manner in which each component functions with other components of
the [Link], there should be an interrelationship between each components of a system.

For e.g.: - in an organization there should be interaction between purchase department and
production department, same way advertising with sales, payroll with personnel.

In computer system, the central processing unit must interact with the input device to solve a
problem.

In turn the main memory holds programs and data that the arithmetic unit uses for computation.

INTERDEPENDENCE:

This is one of the important characteristics of a system.

Interdependence means the parts or the components of an organization or computer system
depend on one another.
Each component or parts should depend on other components of an organization.

One component or subsystem depends on the input of another subsystem for proper functioning,
i.e., the output of one subsystem is required input for another subsystem.

For example: - A decision to computerize an application is initiated by the user, analyzed and
designed by the analyst, programmed and tested by the computer operator.

In the below figure: - none of these persons can perform properly without the required input from
others in the computer center subsystem.

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INTEGRATION

Integration refers to the holism of systems. Synthesis follows analysis to achieve the central
objective of the organization.

It is concerned with how a system is tied together. It is more than sharing a physical part or
location. It means that parts of the system work together within the system even though each part
performs a unique function.

CENTRAL OBJECTIVE

The last characteristic of a system is its central objective. Objectives may be real or stated.

The important point is that users must know the central objective of a computer application early
in the analysis for a successful design and conversion.

Types of system analysis:

Types of System Design

 Logical Design. Logical design pertains to an abstract representation of the data flow,
inputs, and outputs of the system.
 Physical Design.
 Architectural Design.
 Detailed Design.
 Conceptual Data Modeling.
 Entity Relationship Model.
 Terms used in E-R model.
 Comparison.

NOTE:

System Analysis & Design - System Design

System design is the phase that bridges the gap between problem domain and the existing
system in a manageable way. This phase focuses on the solution domain, i.e. “how to
implement?”

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It is the phase where the SRS document is converted into a format that can be implemented and
decides how the system will operate.

In this phase, the complex activity of system development is divided into several smaller sub-
activities, which coordinate with each other to achieve the main objective of system
development.

To Note:
i. System Decomposition:
System decomposition is the process of breaking down a complex system, project, or
problem into smaller, more manageable components, modules, or sub-systems. It simplifies
design, development, and testing by dividing a whole into smaller parts that are easier to
understand, manage, and implement.
ii. System Concurrency:
This is the ability of a computer system, operating system, or application to manage and
execute multiple tasks or processes at the same time, or in overlapping time intervals. It
enables independent parts of a program to progress without waiting for others to finish,
improving responsiveness and resource utilization.
iii. Global Resource Hand Leap
Refers to shared, system-wide resources (like files, data, or memory) that must be managed
to avoid conflicts, often utilizing "global resource settings" to manage environmental
properties (e.g., in Pega or IBM systems)

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Inputs to System Design

System design takes the following inputs −

 Statement of work
 Requirement determination plan
 Current situation analysis
 Proposed system requirements including a conceptual data model, modified DFDs, and
Metadata (data about data).

To Note:

Metadata is defined as "data about data," or structured information that describes, explains, locates, or
manages other data. It provides crucial context—such as creation date, author, file size, and format—
making data easier to find, use, and manage. Essentially, it acts as an index for understanding the
content and characteristics of digital or physical information.

Outputs for System Design

System design gives the following outputs −

 Infrastructure and organizational changes for the proposed system.

 A data schema, often a relational schema.
 Metadata to define the tables/files and columns/data-items.
 A function hierarchy diagram or web page map that graphically describes the program
structure.
 Actual or pseudocode for each module in the program.
 A prototype for the proposed system.

To Note:

A data schema (or database schema) is a formal blueprint or skeleton structure that defines how data is
organized, stored, and related within a database or pipeline. It acts as a structural foundation—mapping
tables, fields, data types, and constraints—that tells systems and teams exactly what to expect from
each dataset.

To Note:
Prototype: An early, working model of a proposed system, software, or product used to test concepts,
refine requirements, and gather user feedback before full-scale development. It acts as a simulation or,
in electronics, a physical, electrically identical version of the final design built for testing purposes.

Types of System Design

Logical Design

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Logical design pertains to an abstract representation of the data flow, inputs, and outputs of the
system. It describes the inputs (sources), outputs (destinations), databases (data stores),
procedures (data flows) all in a format that meets the user requirements.

While preparing the logical design of a system, the system analyst specifies the user needs at
level of detail that virtually determines the information flow into and out of the system and the
required data sources. Data flow diagram, E-R diagram modeling are used.

Physical Design

Physical design relates to the actual input and output processes of the system. It focuses on how
data is entered into a system, verified, processed, and displayed as output.

It produces the working system by defining the design specification that specifies exactly what
the candidate system does. It is concerned with user interface design, process design, and data
design.

It consists of the following steps −

 Specifying the input/output media, designing the database, and specifying backup
procedures.
 Planning system implementation.
 Devising a test and implementation plan, and specifying any new hardware and software.
 Updating costs, benefits, conversion dates, and system constraints.

Architectural Design

It is also known as high level design that focuses on the design of system architecture. It
describes the structure and behavior of the system. It defines the structure and relationship
between various modules of system development process.

Detailed Design

It follows Architectural design and focuses on development of each module.

Conceptual Data Modeling

It is representation of organizational data which includes all the major entities and relationship.
System analysts develop a conceptual data model for the current system that supports the scope
and requirement for the proposed system.

The main aim of conceptual data modeling is to capture as much meaning of data as possible.
Most organization today use conceptual data modeling using E-R model which uses special
notation to represent as much meaning about data as possible.

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Entity Relationship Model

It is a technique used in database design that helps describe the relationship between various
entities of an organization.

Terms used in E-R model

 ENTITY − It specifies distinct real world items in an application. For example: vendor,
item, student, course, teachers, etc.
 RELATIONSHIP − They are the meaningful dependencies between entities. For
example, vendor supplies items, teacher teaches courses, then supplies and course are
relationship.
 ATTRIBUTES − It specifies the properties of relationships. For example, vendor code,
student name. Symbols used in E-R model and their respective meanings −

The following table shows the symbols used in E-R model and their significance −

Symbol Meaning
Entity

Weak Entity

Relationship

Identity Relationship

Attributes

Key Attributes

Multivalued

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 Composite Attribute

Derived Attributes

Total Participation of E2 in R

Cardinality Ratio 1:N for E1:E2 in R

Three types of relationships can exist between two sets of data: one-to-one, one-to-many, and
many-to-many.

To Note: In the Entity-Relationship (ER) model, total participation of \(E_{2}\) in \(R\) means
that every entity in the entity set \(E_{2}\) must be associated with at least one relationship in the
relationship set \(R\)

Cardinality Ratio 1:N for E1:E2 in R:

A Cardinality Ratio 1:N (one-to-many) for a binary relationship \(R\) between entity sets \(E1\) and
\(E2\) means that each entity in \(E1\) can be associated with any number of entities (zero, one, or
many) in \(E2\), but each entity in \(E2\) can be associated with at most one entity in \(E1\).

File Organization

It describes how records are stored within a file.

There are four file organization methods −

 Serial − Records are stored in chronological order (in order as they are input or occur).
Examples − Recording of telephone charges, ATM transactions, Telephone queues.
 Sequential − Records are stored in order based on a key field which contains a value that
uniquely identifies a record. Examples − Phone directories.

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  Direct (relative) − Each record is stored based on a physical address or location on the
device. Address is calculated from the value stored in the record’s key field.
Randomizing routine or hashing algorithm does the conversion.
 Indexed − Records can be processed both sequentially and non-sequentially using
indexes.

Comparison

File Access

One can access a file using either Sequential Access or Random Access. File Access methods
allow computer programs read or write records in a file.

Sequential Access

Every record on the file is processed starting with the first record until End of File (EOF) is
reached. It is efficient when a large number of the records on the file need to be accessed at any
given time. Data stored on a tape (sequential access) can be accessed only sequentially.

Direct (Random) Access

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Records are located by knowing their physical locations or addresses on the device rather than
their positions relative to other records. Data stored on a CD device (direct-access) can be
accessed either sequentially or randomly.

Types of Files used in an Organization System

Following are the types of files used in an organization system −

 Master file − It contains the current information for a system. For example, customer
file, student file, telephone directory.
 Table file − It is a type of master file that changes infrequently and stored in a tabular
format. For example, storing Zip code.
 Transaction file − It contains the day-to-day information generated from business
activities. It is used to update or process the master file. For example, Addresses of the
employees.
 Temporary file − It is created and used whenever needed by a system.
 Mirror file − They are the exact duplicates of other files. Help minimize the risk of
downtime in cases when the original becomes unusable. They must be modified each
time the original file is changed.
 Log files − They contain copies of master and transaction records in order to chronicle
any changes that are made to the master file. It facilitates auditing and provides
mechanism for recovery in case of system failure.
 Archive files − Backup files that contain historical versions of other files.

Documentation Control

Documentation is a process of recording the information for any reference or operational

purpose.

It helps users, managers, and IT staff, who require it.

It is important that prepared document must be updated on regular basis to trace the progress of
the system easily.

After the implementation of system if the system is working improperly, then documentation
helps the administrator to understand the flow of data in the system to correct the flaws and get
the system working.

Programmers or systems analysts usually create program and system documentation.

Systems analysts usually are responsible for preparing documentation to help users learn the
system.

In large companies, a technical support team that includes technical writers might assist in the
preparation of user documentation and training materials.

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Advantages

 It can reduce system downtime, cut costs, and speed up maintenance tasks.
 It provides the clear description of formal flow of present system and helps to understand
the type of input data and how the output can be produced.
 It provides effective and efficient way of communication between technical and
nontechnical users about system.
 It facilitates the training of new user so that he can easily understand the flow of system.
 It helps the user to solve the problems such as troubleshooting and helps the manager to
take better final decisions of the organization system.
 It provides better control to the internal or external working of the system.

Types of Documentations

When it comes to System Design, there are following four main documentations −

 Program documentation
 System documentation
 Operations documentation
 User documentation

Program Documentation

 It describes inputs, outputs, and processing logic for all the program modules.
 The program documentation process starts in the system analysis phase and continues
during implementation.
 This documentation guides programmers, who construct modules that are well supported
by internal and external comments and descriptions that can be understood and
maintained easily.

Operations Documentation

Operations documentation contains all the information needed for processing and distributing
online and printed output. Operations documentation should be clear, concise, and available
online if possible.

It includes the following information −

 Program, systems analyst, programmer, and system identification.

 Scheduling information for printed output, such as report, execution frequency, and
deadlines.
 Input files, their source, output files, and their destinations.
 E-mail and report distribution lists.
 Special forms required, including online forms.
 Error and informational messages to operators and restart procedures.
 Special instructions, such as security requirements.

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User Documentation

It includes instructions and information to the users who will interact with the system. For
example, user manuals, help guides, and tutorials.

User documentation is valuable in training users and for reference purpose. It must be clear,
understandable, and readily accessible to users at all levels.

The users, system owners, analysts, and programmers, all put combined efforts to develop a
user’s guide.

A user documentation should include −

 A system overview that clearly describes all major system features, capabilities, and
limitations.
 Description of source document content, preparation, processing, and, samples.
 Overview of menu and data entry screen options, contents, and processing instructions.
 Examples of reports that are produced regularly or available at the user’s request,
including samples.
 Security and audit trail information.
 Explanation of responsibility for specific input, output, or processing requirements.
 Procedures for requesting changes and reporting problems.
 Examples of exceptions and error situations.
 Frequently asked questions (FAQs).
 Explanation of how to get help and procedures for updating the user manual.

System Documentation

System documentation serves as the technical specifications for the IS and how the objectives of
the IS are accomplished.

Users, managers and IS owners need never reference system documentation.

System documentation provides the basis for understanding the technical aspects of the IS when
modifications are made.

 It describes each program within the IS and the entire IS itself.

 It describes the system’s functions, the way they are implemented, each program's
purpose within the entire IS with respect to the order of execution, information passed to
and from programs, and overall system flow.
 It includes data dictionary entries, data flow diagrams, object models, screen layouts,
source documents, and the systems request that initiated the project.
 Most of the system documentation is prepared during the system analysis and system
design phases.

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  During systems implementation, an analyst must review system documentation to verify
that it is complete, accurate, and up-to-date, and including any changes made during the
implementation process.

Design Strategies
Top-Down Strategy

The top-down strategy uses the modular approach to develop the design of a system. It is called
so because it starts from the top or the highest-level module and moves towards the lowest level
modules.

In this technique, the highest-level module or main module for developing the software is
identified.

The main module is divided into several smaller and simpler submodules or segments based on
the task performed by each module.

Then, each submodule is further subdivided into several submodules of next lower level.

This process of dividing each module into several submodules continues until the lowest level
modules, which cannot be further subdivided, are not identified.

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Bottom-Up Strategy

Bottom-Up Strategy follows the modular approach to develop the design of the system.

It is called so because it starts from the bottom or the most basic level modules and moves
towards the highest level modules.

In this technique,

 The modules at the most basic or the lowest level are identified.
 These modules are then grouped together based on the function performed by each
module to form the next higher-level modules.
 Then, these modules are further combined to form the next higher-level modules.
 This process of grouping several simpler modules to form higher level modules continues
until the main module of system development process is achieved.

Structured Design

Structured design is a data-flow based methodology that helps in identifying the input and output
of the developing system.

The main objective of structured design is to minimize the complexity and increase the
modularity of a program.

Structured design also helps in describing the functional aspects of the system.

In structured designing, the system specifications act as a basis for graphically representing the
flow of data and sequence of processes involved in a software development with the help of
DFDs.

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After developing the DFDs for the software system, the next step is to develop the structure
chart.

Modularization

Structured design partitions the program into small and independent modules. These are
organized in top down manner with the details shown in bottom.

Thus, structured design uses an approach called Modularization or decomposition to minimize

the complexity and to manage the problem by subdividing it into smaller segments.

Advantages

 Critical interfaces are tested first.

 It provide abstraction.
 It allows multiple programmers to work simultaneously.
 It allows code reuse.
 It provides control and improves morale.
 It makes identifying structure easier.

Structured Charts

Structured charts are a recommended tool for designing a modular, top down systems which
define the various modules of system development and the relationship between each module.

It shows the system module and their relationship between them.

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It consists of diagram consisting of rectangular boxes that represent the modules, connecting
arrows, or lines.

 Control Module − It is a higher-level module that directs lower-level modules, called

subordinate modules.
 Library Module − It is a reusable module and can be invoked from more than one point
in the chart.

We have two different approaches to design a structured chart −

 Transform-Centered Structured Charts − They are used when all the transactions
follow same path.
 Transaction–Centered Structured Charts − They are used when all the transactions do
not follow the same path.

Objectives of Using Structure Flowcharts

 To encourage a top-down design.

 To support the concept of modules and identify the appropriate modules.
 To show the size and complexity of the system.
 To identify the number of readily identifiable functions and modules within each
function.
 To depict whether each identifiable function is a manageable entity or should be broken
down into smaller components.

Factors Affecting System Complexity

To develop good quality of system software, it is necessary to develop a good design.

Therefore, the main focus on while developing the design of the system is the quality of the
software design.

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A good quality software design is the one, which minimizes the complexity and cost expenditure
in software development.

The two important concepts related to the system development that help in determining the
complexity of a system are coupling and cohesion.

Coupling

Coupling is the measure of the independence of components. It defines the degree of dependency
of each module of system development on the other.

In practice, this means the stronger the coupling between the modules in a system, the more
difficult it is to implement and maintain the system.

Each module should have simple, clean interface with other modules, and that the minimum
number of data elements should be shared between modules.

High Coupling

These type of systems have interconnections with program units dependent on each other.
Changes to one subsystem leads to high impact on the other subsystem.

Low Coupling

These type of systems are made up of components which are independent or almost independent.
A change in one subsystem does not affect any other subsystem.

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Coupling Measures

 Content Coupling − When one component actually modifies another, then the modified
component is completely dependent on modifying one.
 Common Coupling − When amount of coupling is reduced somewhat by organizing
system design so that data are accessible from a common data store.
 Control Coupling − When one component passes parameters to control the activity of
another component.
 Stamp Coupling − When data structures is used to pass information from one
component to another.
 Data Coupling − When only data is passed then components are connected by this
coupling.

Cohesion

Cohesion is the measure of closeness of the relationship between its components. It defines the
amount of dependency of the components of a module on one another. In practice, this means the
systems designer must ensure that −

 They do not split essential processes into fragmented modules.

 They do not gather together unrelated processes represented as processes on the DFD into
meaningless modules.

The best modules are those that are functionally cohesive. The worst modules are those that are
coincidentally cohesive.

The worst degree of cohesion

Coincidental cohesion is found in a component whose parts are unrelated to another.

 Logical Cohesion − It is where several logically related functions or data elements are
placed in same component.

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  Temporal Cohesion − It is when a component that is used to initialize a system or set
variables performs several functions in sequence, but the functions are related by timing
involved.
 Procedurally Cohesion − It is when functions are grouped together in a component just
to ensure this order.
 Sequential Cohesion − It is when the output from one part of a component is the input to
the next part of it.

Input / Output & Forms Design

Input Design

In an information system, input is the raw data that is processed to produce output. During the
input design, the developers must consider the input devices such as PC, MICR, OMR, etc.

Therefore, the quality of system input determines the quality of system output. Well-designed
input forms and screens have following properties −

 It should serve specific purpose effectively such as storing, recording, and retrieving the
information.
 It ensures proper completion with accuracy.
 It should be easy to fill and straightforward.
 It should focus on user’s attention, consistency, and simplicity.
 All these objectives are obtained using the knowledge of basic design principles
regarding −
o What are the inputs needed for the system?
o How end users respond to different elements of forms and screens.

Objectives for Input Design

The objectives of input design are −

 To design data entry and input procedures

 To reduce input volume
 To design source documents for data capture or devise other data capture methods
 To design input data records, data entry screens, user interface screens, etc.
 To use validation checks and develop effective input controls.

Data Input Methods

It is important to design appropriate data input methods to prevent errors while entering data.
These methods depend on whether the data is entered by customers in forms manually and later
entered by data entry operators, or data is directly entered by users on the PCs.

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A system should prevent user from making mistakes by −

 Clear form design by leaving enough space for writing legibly.

 Clear instructions to fill form.
 Clear form design.
 Reducing key strokes.
 Immediate error feedback.

Some of the popular data input methods are −

 Batch input method (Offline data input method)

 Online data input method
 Computer readable forms
 Interactive data input

Input Integrity Controls

Input integrity controls include a number of methods to eliminate common input errors by end-
users. They also include checks on the value of individual fields; both for format and the
completeness of all inputs.

Audit trails for data entry and other system operations are created using transaction logs which
gives a record of all changes introduced in the database to provide security and means of
recovery in case of any failure.

Output Design

The design of output is the most important task of any system. During output design, developers
identify the type of outputs needed, and consider the necessary output controls and prototype
report layouts.

Objectives of Output Design

The objectives of input design are −

 To develop output design that serves the intended purpose and eliminates the production
of unwanted output.
 To develop the output design that meets the end users requirements.
 To deliver the appropriate quantity of output.
 To form the output in appropriate format and direct it to the right person.
 To make the output available on time for making good decisions.

Let us now go through various types of outputs −

External Outputs

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Manufacturers create and design external outputs for printers. External outputs enable the system
to leave the trigger actions on the part of their recipients or confirm actions to their recipients.

Some of the external outputs are designed as turnaround outputs, which are implemented as a
form and re-enter the system as an input.

Internal outputs

Internal outputs are present inside the system, and used by end-users and managers. They support
the management in decision making and reporting.

There are three types of reports produced by management information −

 Detailed Reports − They contain present information which has almost no filtering or
restriction generated to assist management planning and control.
 Summary Reports − They contain trends and potential problems which are categorized
and summarized that are generated for managers who do not want details.
 Exception Reports − They contain exceptions, filtered data to some condition or
standard before presenting it to the manager, as information.

Output Integrity Controls

Output integrity controls include routing codes to identify the receiving system, and verification
messages to confirm successful receipt of messages that are handled by network protocol.

Printed or screen-format reports should include a date/time for report printing and the data.
Multipage reports contain report title or description, and pagination. Pre-printed forms usually
include a version number and effective date.

Forms Design

Both forms and reports are the product of input and output design and are business document
consisting of specified data. The main difference is that forms provide fields for data input but
reports are purely used for reading. For example, order forms, employment and credit
application, etc.

 During form designing, the designers should know −

o who will use them
o where would they be delivered
o the purpose of the form or report
 During form design, automated design tools enhance the developer’s ability to prototype
forms and reports and present them to end users for evaluation.

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Objectives of Good Form Design

A good form design is necessary to ensure the following −

 To keep the screen simple by giving proper sequence, information, and clear captions.
 To meet the intended purpose by using appropriate forms.
 To ensure the completion of form with accuracy.
 To keep the forms attractive by using icons, inverse video, or blinking cursors etc.
 To facilitate navigation.

Types of Forms

Flat Forms

 It is a single copy form prepared manually or by a machine and printed on a paper. For
additional copies of the original, carbon papers are inserted between copies.
 It is a simplest and inexpensive form to design, print, and reproduce, which uses less
volume.

Unit Set/Snap out Forms

 These are papers with one-time carbons interleaved into unit sets for either handwritten
or machine use.
 Carbons may be either blue or black, standard grade medium intensity. Generally, blue
carbons are best for handwritten forms while black carbons are best for machine use.

Continuous strip/Fanfold Forms

 These are multiple unit forms joined in a continuous strip with perforations between each
pair of forms.
 It is a less expensive method for large volume use.

No Carbon Required (NCR) Paper

 They use carbonless papers which have two chemical coatings (capsules), one on the face
and the other on the back of a sheet of paper.
 When pressure is applied, the two capsules interact and create an image.

Testing and Quality Assurance

The software system needs to be checked for its intended behavior and direction of progress at
each development stage to avoid duplication of efforts, time and cost overruns, and to assure
completion of the system within stipulated time.

23
The software system needs to be checked for its intended behavior and direction of progress at
each development stage to avoid duplication of efforts, time and cost overruns, and to assure
completion of the system within stipulated time.

System testing and quality assurance come to aid for checking the system. It includes −

 Product level quality (Testing)

 Process level quality.

Let us go through them briefly −

Testing

Testing is the process or activity that checks the functionality and correctness of software
according to specified user requirements in order to improve the quality and reliability of system.
It is an expensive, time consuming, and critical approach in system development which requires
proper planning of overall testing process.

A successful test is one that finds the errors. It executes the program with explicit intention of
finding error, i.e., making the program fail. It is a process of evaluating system with an intention
of creating a strong system and mainly focuses on the weak areas of the system or software.

Characteristics of System Testing

System testing begins at the module level and proceeds towards the integration of the entire
software system. Different testing techniques are used at different times while testing the system.
It is conducted by the developer for small projects and by independent testing groups for large
projects.

Stages of System Testing

The following stages are involved in testing −

Test Strategy

It is a statement that provides information about the various levels, methods, tools, and
techniques used for testing the system. It should satisfy all the needs of an organization.

Test Plan

It provides a plan for testing the system and verifies that the system under testing fulfils all the
design and functional specifications. The test plan provides the following information −

 Objectives of each test phase

 Approaches and tools used for testing
 Responsibilities and time required for each testing activity

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  Availability of tools, facilities, and test libraries
 Procedures and standards required for planning and conducting the tests
 Factors responsible for successful completion of testing process

Test Case Design

 A number of test cases are identified for each module of the system to be tested.
 Each test case will specify how the implementation of a particular requirement or design
decision is to be tested and the criteria for the success of the test.
 The test cases along with the test plan are documented as a part of a system specification
document or in a separate document called test specification or test description.

Test Procedures

It consists of the steps that should be followed to execute each of the test cases. These procedures
are specified in a separate document called test procedure specification. This document also
specifies any special requirements and formats for reporting the result of testing.

Test Result Documentation

Test result file contains brief information about the total number of test cases executed, the
number of errors, and nature of errors. These results are then assessed against criteria in the test
specification to determine the overall outcome of the test.

Types of Testing

Testing can be of various types and different types of tests are conducted depending on the kind
of bugs one seeks to discover −

Unit Testing

Also known as Program Testing, it is a type of testing where the analyst tests or focuses on each
program or module independently. It is carried out with the intention of executing each statement
of the module at least once.

 In unit testing, accuracy of program cannot be assured and it is difficult to conduct testing
of various input combination in detail.
 It identifies maximum errors in a program as compared to other testing techniques.

Integration Testing

In Integration Testing, the analyst tests multiple module working together. It is used to find
discrepancies between the system and its original objective, current specifications, and systems
documentation.

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  Here the analysts are try to find areas where modules have been designed with different
specifications for data length, type, and data element name.
 It verifies that file sizes are adequate and that indices have been built properly.

Functional Testing

Function testing determines whether the system is functioning correctly according to its
specifications and relevant standards documentation. Functional testing typically starts with the
implementation of the system, which is very critical for the success of the system.

Functional testing is divided into two categories −

 Positive Functional Testing − It involves testing the system with valid inputs to verify
that the outputs produced are correct.
 Negative Functional Testing − It involves testing the software with invalid inputs and
undesired operating conditions.

Rules for System Testing

To carry out system testing successfully, you need to follow the given rules −

 Testing should be based on the requirements of user.

 Before writing testing scripts, understand the business logic should be understood
thoroughly.
 Test plan should be done as soon as possible.
 Testing should be done by the third party.
 It should be performed on static software.
 Testing should be done for valid and invalid input conditions.
 Testing should be reviewed and examined to reduce the costs.
 Both static and dynamic testing should be conducted on the software.
 Documentation of test cases and test results should be done.

Quality Assurance

It is the review of system or software products and its documentation for assurance that system
meets the requirements and specifications.

 Purpose of QA is to provide confidence to the customers by constant delivery of product

according to specification.
 Software quality Assurance (SQA) is a techniques that includes procedures and tools
applied by the software professionals to ensure that software meet the specified standard
for its intended use and performance.
 The main aim of SQA is to provide proper and accurate visibility of software project and
its developed product to the administration.
 It reviews and audits the software product and its activities throughout the life cycle of
system development.

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Objectives of Quality Assurance

The objectives of conducting quality assurance are as follows −

 To monitor the software development process and the final software developed.
 To ensure whether the software project is implementing the standards and procedures set
by the management.
 To notify groups and individuals about the SQA activities and results of these activities.
 To ensure that the issues, which are not solved within the software are addressed by the
upper management.
 To identify deficiencies in the product, process, or the standards, and fix them.

Levels of Quality Assurance

There are several levels of QA and testing that need to be performed in order to certify a
software product.

Level 1 − Code Walk-through

At this level, offline software is examined or checked for any violations of the official coding
rules. In general, the emphasis is placed on examination of the documentation and level of in-
code comments.

Level 2 − Compilation and Linking

At this level, it is checked that the software can compile and link all official platforms and
operating systems.

Level 3 − Routine Running

At this level, it is checked that the software can run properly under a variety of conditions such
as certain number of events and small and large event sizes etc.

Level 4 − Performance test

At this final level, it is checked that the performance of the software satisfies the previously
specified performance level.

System Implementation and Maintenance

Implementation is a process of ensuring that the information system is operational. It involves −

 Constructing a new system from scratch

 Constructing a new system from the existing one.

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Implementation allows the users to take over its operation for use and evaluation. It involves
training the users to handle the system and plan for a smooth conversion.

Training

The personnel in the system must know in detail what their roles will be, how they can use the
system, and what the system will or will not do. The success or failure of well-designed and
technically elegant systems can depend on the way they are operated and used.

Training Systems Operators

Systems operators must be trained properly such that they can handle all possible operations,
both routine and extraordinary.

The operators should be trained in what common malfunctions may occur, how to recognize
them, and what steps to take when they come.

Training involves creating troubleshooting lists to identify possible problems and remedies for
them, as well as the names and telephone numbers of individuals to contact when unexpected or
unusual problems arise.

Training also involves familiarization with run procedures, which involves working through the
sequence of activities needed to use a new system.

User Training

 End-user training is an important part of the computer-based information system

development, which must be provided to employees to enable them to do their own
problem solving.
 User training involves how to operate the equipment, troubleshooting the system
problem, determining whether a problem that arose is caused by the equipment or
software.
 Most user training deals with the operation of the system itself. The training courses must
be designed to help the user with fast mobilization for the organization.

Training Guidelines

 Establishing measurable objectives

 Using appropriate training methods
 Selecting suitable training sites
 Employing understandable training materials

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Training Methods

Instructor-led training

It involves both trainers and trainees, who have to meet at the same time, but not necessarily at
the same place. The training session could be one-on-one or collaborative. It is of two types −

Virtual Classroom

In this training, trainers must meet the trainees at the same time, but are not required to be at the
same place. The primary tools used here are: video conferencing, text based Internet relay chat
tools, or virtual reality packages, etc.

Normal Classroom

The trainers must meet the trainees at the same time and at the same place. They primary tools
used here are blackboard, overhead projectors, LCD projector, etc.

Self-Paced Training

It involves both trainers and trainees, who do not need to meet at the same place or at the same
time. The trainees learn the skills themselves by accessing the courses at their own convenience.
It is of two types −

Multimedia Training

In this training, courses are presented in multimedia format and stored on CD-ROM. It
minimizes the cost in developing an in-house training course without assistance from external
programmers.

Web-based Training

In this training, courses are often presented in hyper media format and developed to support
internet and intranet. It provides just–in-time training for end users and allow organization to
tailor training requirements.

Conversion

It is a process of migrating from the old system to the new one. It provides understandable and
structured approach to improve the communication between management and project team.

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Conversion Plan

It contains description of all the activities that must occur during implementation of the new
system and put it into operation. It anticipates possible problems and solutions to deal with them.

It includes the following activities −

 Name all files for conversions.

 Identifying the data requirements to develop new files during conversion.
 Listing all the new documents and procedures that are required.
 Identifying the controls to be used in each activity.
 Identifying the responsibility of person for each activity.
 Verifying conversion schedules.

Conversion Methods

The four methods of conversion are −

 Parallel Conversion
 Direct Cutover Conversion
 Pilot Approach
 Phase-In Method

Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Provides fallback when
new system fails. Causes cost overruns.
Parallel Old and new systems are used
Conversion simultaneously. Offers greatest security New system may not
and ultimately testing of get fair trail.
new system.
Forces users to make No fall back if
new system work problems arise with
Direct New system is implemented and
new system
Cutover old system is replaced
Immediate benefit from
Conversion completely.
new methods and Requires most careful
control. planning
Allows training and
installation without
unnecessary use of A long term phase in
Supports phased approach that
Pilot resources. causes a problem of
gradually implement system
Approach whether conversion
across all users
Avoid large goes well or not.
contingencies from risk
management.
Phase-In Working version of system Provides experience and Gives impression that
Method implemented in one part of line test before old system is erroneous
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 implementation
organization based on feedback,
it is installed throughout the When preferred new
and it is not reliable.
organization all alone or stage by system involves new
stage. technology or drastic
changes in performance.

File Conversion

It is a process of converting one file format into another. For example, file in WordPerfect format
can be converted into Microsoft Word.

For successful conversion, a conversion plan is required, which includes −

 Knowledge of the target system and understanding of the present system

 Teamwork
 Automated methods, testing and parallel operations
 Continuous support for correcting problems
 Updating systems/user documentation, etc.

Many popular applications support opening and saving to other file formats of the same type. For
example, Microsoft Word can open and save files in many other word processing formats.

Post-Implementation Evaluation Review (PIER)

PIER is a tool or standard approach for evaluating the outcome of the project and determine
whether the project is producing the expected benefits to the processes, products or services. It
enables the user to verify that the project or system has achieved its desired outcome within
specified time period and planned cost.

PIER ensures that the project has met its goals by evaluating the development and management
processes of the project.

Objectives of PIER

The objectives of having a PIER are as follows −

 To determine the success of a project against the projected costs, benefits, and timelines.
 To identify the opportunities to add additional value to the project.
 To determine strengths and weaknesses of the project for future reference and appropriate
action.
 To make recommendations on the future of the project by refining cost estimating
techniques.

The following staff members should be included in the review process −

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  Project team and Management
 User staff
 Strategic Management Staff
 External users

System Maintenance / Enhancement

Maintenance means restoring something to its original conditions.

Enhancement means adding, modifying the code to support the changes in the user specification.

System maintenance conforms the system to its original requirements and enhancement adds to
system capability by incorporating new requirements.

Thus, maintenance changes the existing system, enhancement adds features to the existing
system, and development replaces the existing system.

It is an important part of system development that includes the activities which corrects errors in
system design and implementation, updates the documents, and tests the data.

Maintenance Types

System maintenance can be classified into three types −

 Corrective Maintenance − Enables user to carry out the repairing and correcting
leftover problems.
 Adaptive Maintenance − Enables user to replace the functions of the programs.
 Perfective Maintenance − Enables user to modify or enhance the programs according to
the users’ requirements and changing needs.

System Security and Audit

System Audit

It is an investigation to review the performance of an operational system. The objectives of

conducting a system audit are as follows −

 To compare actual and planned performance.

 To verify that the stated objectives of system are still valid in current environment.
 To evaluate the achievement of stated objectives.
 To ensure the reliability of computer based financial and other information.
 To ensure all records included while processing.
 To ensure protection from frauds.

Audit of Computer System Usage

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Data processing auditors audits the usage of computer system in order to control it. The auditor
need control data which is obtained by computer system itself.

The System Auditor

The role of auditor begins at the initial stage of system development so that resulting system is
secure. It describes an idea of utilization of system that can be recorded which helps in load
planning and deciding on hardware and software specifications. It gives an indication of wise use
of the computer system and possible misuse of the system.

Audit Trial

An audit trial or audit log is a security record which is comprised of who has accessed a
computer system and what operations are performed during a given period of time. Audit trials
are used to do detailed tracing of how data on the system has changed.

It provides documentary evidence of various control techniques that a transaction is subject to

during its processing. Audit trials do not exist independently. They are carried out as a part of
accounting for recovering lost transactions.

Audit Methods

Auditing can be done in two different ways −

Auditing around the Computer

 Take sample inputs and manually apply processing rules.

 Compare outputs with computer outputs.

Auditing through the Computer

 Establish audit trial which allows examining selected intermediate results.

 Control totals provide intermediate checks.

Audit Considerations

Audit considerations examine the results of the analysis by using both the narratives and models
to identify the problems caused due to misplaced functions, split processes or functions, broken

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data flows, missing data, redundant or incomplete processing, and no addressed automation
opportunities.

The activities under this phase are as follows −

 Identification of the current environment problems

 Identification of problem causes
 Identification of alternative solutions
 Evaluation and feasibility analysis of each solution
 Selection and recommendation of most practical and appropriate solution
 Project cost estimation and cost benefit analysis

Security

System security refers to protecting the system from theft, unauthorized access and
modifications, and accidental or unintentional damage. In computerized systems, security
involves protecting all the parts of computer system which includes data, software, and
hardware. Systems security includes system privacy and system integrity.

 System privacy deals with protecting individuals systems from being accessed and used
without the permission/knowledge of the concerned individuals.
 System integrity is concerned with the quality and reliability of raw as well as processed
data in the system.

Control Measures

There are variety of control measures which can be broadly classified as follows −

Backup

 Regular backup of databases daily/weekly depending on the time criticality and size.
 Incremental back up at shorter intervals.
 Backup copies kept in safe remote location particularly necessary for disaster recovery.
 Duplicate systems run and all transactions mirrored if it is a very critical system and
cannot tolerate any disruption before storing in disk.

Physical Access Control to Facilities

 Physical locks and Biometric authentication. For example, finger print

 ID cards or entry passes being checked by security staff.
 Identification of all persons who read or modify data and logging it in a file.

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Using Logical or Software Control

 Password system.
 Encrypting sensitive data/programs.
 Training employees on data care/handling and security.
 Antivirus software and Firewall protection while connected to internet.

Risk Analysis

A risk is the possibility of losing something of value.

Risk analysis starts with planning for secure system by identifying the vulnerability of system
and impact of this. The plan is then made to manage the risk and cope with disaster.

It is done to accesses the probability of possible disaster and their cost.

Risk analysis is a teamwork of experts with different backgrounds like chemicals, human error,
and process equipment.

The following steps are to be followed while conducting risk analysis −

 Identification of all the components of computer system.

 Identification of all the threats and hazards that each of the components faces.
 Quantify risks i.e. assessment of loss in the case threats become reality.

Risk Analysis – Main Steps

As the risks or threats are changing and the potential loss are also changing, management of risk
should be performed on periodic basis by senior managers.

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Risk management is a continuous process and it involves the following steps −

 Identification of security measures.

 Calculation of the cost of implementation of security measures.
 Comparison of the cost of security measures with the loss and probability of threats.
 Selection and implementation of security measures.
 Review of the implementation of security measures.

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