Comprehensive Technical Report On

Automatic Braking Mode Switching for

Electric Vehicles
Closed-Loop Control, Blended System Modeling, Stability Analysis, and
Simulation Performance Evaluation

EL BIYATI MANAL

2026

Abstract
This extensive technical report investigates the design, execution, and mathematical
verification of an automated hybrid braking control system tailored specifically for modern
Electric Vehicles (EVs). Traditional internal combustion vehicles discard significant kinetic
reserves as absolute thermal waste through mechanical friction braking hardware. Electric
drivetrains address this inefficiency via regenerative braking systems, converting deceleration
energy directly into chemical energy stored within the high-voltage battery unit. However,
pure regenerative braking possesses explicit operational boundaries, showing systemic limita-
tions during massive stopping demands, high states of charge (SoC), and low operational
velocities.
To overcome these constraints, this report models an advanced Blended Braking Con-
trol System managed by an automated Braking Management Unit (BMU). By merging a
Proportional-Integral (PI) closed-loop deceleration tracking engine with parallel dynamic
models of electro-mechanical generation loops and fast hydraulic mechanical hardware, we
show a highly efficient structural framework. This documentation features detailed block
diagrams, explicit state-space formulations, exhaustive system stability derivations, and
the complete script environment used for MATLAB-based step-response simulations. The
definitive performance matrix confirms that the proposed blended configuration optimizes
energy recapture by up to 65% over baseline architectures while maintaining maximum
occupant safety and smooth vehicle stability profiles.
Contents

1 Introduction and Strategic Background 3

1.1 Objective Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Braking Paradigms in Modern Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Regenerative Braking Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Mechanical Friction Braking Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 The Systemic Need for Blended Switching Topologies 5

2.1 Friction-Only Topology Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Regenerative-Only Topology Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Blended Control Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Mathematical System Modeling and State-Space Derivation 6

3.1 Regenerative System Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Hydraulic Friction Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Vehicle Dynamics Plant Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4 State-Space Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Analytical Closed-Loop Transfer Function Derivation 7

4.1 Open-Loop Component Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Definitive Closed-Loop Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

5 MATLAB Simulation Framework Execution 8

5.1 Complete Integrated Simulation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

6 Simulation Outputs and Dynamic Evaluation 10

6.1 Vehicle Velocity Tracking (Figure 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.2 Braking Torque Distribution (Figure 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.3 Step Response Characteristics (Figure 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.4 Pole-Zero Stability Evaluation (Figure 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.5 Comparative Control Performance (Figure 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.6 Energy Recovery Efficiency Matrix (Figure 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

7 Performance Optimization and Stability Validation 11

7.1 Robustness Analysis Against Parametric Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.2 Frequency Domain Stability Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

8 Engineering Conclusions and Recommendations 12

8.1 Key Design Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8.2 Future Engineering Development Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

List of Figures

1 Complete Closed-Loop Control Architecture for Blended Switching Systems . . . 5

List of Tables

1 Comparative Engineering Metrics of Braking Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2
1 Introduction and Strategic Background

The global push toward modern sustainable transport structures has positioned electric and
plug-in hybrid electric drivetrains at the forefront of contemporary automotive research. Central
to maximizing the drive cycle range of these platforms is the design optimization of auxiliary
vehicular ecosystems. Among these components, the onboard kinetic energy recovery apparatus
stands out as a critical tool for boosting operational efficiency.

1.1 Objective Statement

The core mission of this engineering project is to design, model, and evaluate an automated
braking mode control framework that dynamically routes deceleration requests across hybrid
channels. The foundational design goals target three core areas:

• System Integrity and Public Safety: Guarantee full adherence to strict braking
distances and deceleration thresholds across all environmental profiles.

• Kinetic Stability Metrics: Deliver smooth torque blending to eliminate structural

longitudinal oscillations across friction and regenerative subsystem hands-offs.

• Energy Capture Optimization: Minimize absolute thermal loss through friction compo-
nents, maximizing the return of vehicle kinetic energy to the battery system under varying
load conditions.

1.2 Braking Paradigms in Modern Electric Vehicles

Achieving balanced stopping performance requires deep coordination between distinct physics
domains:

1.2.1 Regenerative Braking Systems

Regenerative operations use the internal permanent magnet or induction electric powertrain
block as a secondary three-phase generation source during deceleration phases. This process
applies a negative counter-torque to the primary drive assembly, slowing the vehicle by routing
kinetic force back through a high-power inverter package to recharge the traction battery unit.

Pregen = ηinv · ηmot · Tregen · ωwheel (1)

Where ηinv and ηmot capture the operational efficiencies of the power electronics block and traction
motor assembly, respectively. While highly efficient, this infrastructure suffers from physical
limitations at low operational speeds due to collapsing back-electromotive forces (Back-EMF),
and during high-battery State of Charge (SoC) profiles to prevent cell overvoltage failures.

1.2.2 Mechanical Friction Braking Networks

Friction braking uses standard high-pressure hydraulic calipers to clamp robust pads against
composite brake discs attached directly to the wheel assemblies. This architecture acts as a
highly reliable, instant sink that translates kinetic energy into localized thermal energy, which is
subsequently lost to the environment:
2 · µpad · Phyd · Acyl · Rmean
Ff riction = (2)
Rw
This mechanism provides consistent force across all velocities and deceleration profiles but offers
zero energy recovery potential.

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 Table 1: Comparative Engineering Metrics of Braking Subsystems

Engineering Parameter Regenerative Power Loop Hydraulic Friction Netwo

Energy Transformation Kinetic to Chemical Potential Kinetic to Dissipated Therma
Response Dynamic Delay First-Order Delay (τ ≈ 0.2 s) Quasi-Instantaneous Interact
Low Velocity Operational Limit Ineffective below threshold Vmin Fully Functional to Complete
High Demand Saturation Limit Capped by Inverter/Motor Thermal Limits Capped by Mechanical Pad S
Systemic Efficiency Range High (65% − 75%) Absolute Zero (0%)

4
2 The Systemic Need for Blended Switching Topologies

Evaluating single-source architectures reveals structural vulnerabilities under real-world driving

cycles. A single approach fails to deliver the performance required for modern commercial electric
vehicles.

2.1 Friction-Only Topology Evaluation

A friction-only braking strategy depends entirely on traditional mechanical friction components.
While this setup delivers reliable stopping power and remains robust under extreme emergency
events, it wastes large amounts of kinetic energy as thermal discard. This design choice decreases
overall vehicle efficiency and accelerates wear across the mechanical components, leading to
frequent service intervals.

2.2 Regenerative-Only Topology Evaluation

A regenerative-only strategy maximizes energy recovery but presents severe operational safety
challenges. The available stopping torque matches the continuous or peak capabilities of the
electrical machine. This leaves the vehicle unable to execute aggressive emergency stops or
maintain consistent deceleration at slow speeds or when the battery pack is fully charged.

2.3 Blended Control Integration

The blended braking framework merges these distinct paradigms into a cohesive system. This
architecture runs a real-time tracking engine that maps the total required braking torque while
monitoring the current battery state and vehicle speed. The system applies maximum regenerative
braking up to its safe physical limit, then fills any remaining torque deficit using the highly
responsive friction system.

Tregen_ref
Tregen

ad_ref (s) ϵa Treq Braking Management

Deceleration Controller
+ K s+K Unit (BMU) +
Ka (s) = pa s ia
Switching Logic
−

Tf riction_ref
Ff riction ·

Figure 1: Complete Closed-Loop Control Architecture for Blended Switching Systems

5
3 Mathematical System Modeling and State-Space Derivation

To accurately evaluate the system’s dynamic performance, we derive explicit mathematical models
for each hardware block within the control loop.

3.1 Regenerative System Dynamics

The power electronics inverter and motor control loops exhibit electrical and inductive delays.
We model this response using a first-order lag filter:

Tregen (s) Kr 1 Kr
Kr (s) = = =⇒ Ṫregen = − Tregen + Tregen_ref (3)
Tregen_ref (s) Tr s + 1 Tr Tr

Where Tr represents the core drivetrain time constant (τ = 0.2 seconds) and Kr is the static gain
factor.

3.2 Hydraulic Friction Network Model

The hydraulic mechanical brake actuator responds very quickly relative to the electrical drivetrain
components. It is modeled using a standard first-order dynamic lag framework:

Tf riction (s) Kf
Kf (s) = = (4)
Tf riction_ref (s) Tf s + 1

For general analysis, we assume an immediate response (Tf → 0, Kf = 1), meaning the mechanical
braking network delivers its requested torque target almost instantaneously.

3.3 Vehicle Dynamics Plant Modeling

The longitudinal motion of the vehicle platform follows Newton’s second law. Rotational tire
forces link directly to linear deceleration through the effective wheel radius Rw :
 
Tregen (t)
m · v̇(t) = − Ff riction (t) + − Fload (5)
Rw

Expressing this behavior in terms of equivalent vehicle mass inertia calculated at the driven
wheels (Jv = m · Rw
2 ), the plant transfer function simplifies to a basic integrator:

a(s) 1
P (s) = = (6)
Ttotal (s) Jv · s

3.4 State-Space Formulation

We define our internal state vectors as x = [v, Tregen ]T , our control input as u = Tcmd , and our
output vector as y = v. Combining the drivetrain dynamics with the vehicle motion equations
yields the following continuous-time state-space configuration:
   1    
v̇ 0 − m·R v 0
= 1
w + 1 Tcmd (7)
Ṫregen 0 − Tr Tregen Tr
 
v
(8)
 
y= 1 0
Tregen

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4 Analytical Closed-Loop Transfer Function Derivation

Referring to the structural routing diagram outlined in Figure 1, the complete closed-loop transfer
function maps desired deceleration targets (ad_ref (s)) directly to actual vehicle deceleration
(a(s)).

4.1 Open-Loop Component Definitions

The primary forward path combines the series controllers alongside the parallel actuator com-
binations. The system deceleration loop is driven by a Proportional-Integral (PI) tracking
engine:
Kpa · s + Kia
Ka (s) = (9)
s
The overall output torque splits into regenerative and friction pathways managed by the BMU
allocation blocks:
Gactuators (s) = [Kr (s) · Rw + Kf (s) · Rw ] (10)
The combined forward-path transfer matrix G(s) matches the product of these series systems:

G(s) = Ka (s) · [Kr (s) · P (s) · Rw + Kf (s) · Rw · P (s) · Rw ] (11)

4.2 Definitive Closed-Loop Formulation

Applying standard block diagram reduction principles with unity feedback (Ha (s) = 1) yields
the final system transfer function:

a(s) G(s)
T F (s) = = (12)
ad_ref (s) 1 + G(s) · Ha (s)

Substituting the component formulations into this structure produces the definitive tracking
system equation:
   2

Kpa s+Kia Kr Rw Kf Rw
s · ·
Tr s+1 Jv s + ·
Tf s+1 Jv s
T F (s) =   
Kf 2
 (13)
Kpa s+Kia Kr Rw Rw
1+ s · (1) · ·
Tr s+1 Jv s + ·
Tf s+1 Jv s

This equation describes a third-order tracking response. The numerator terms introduce
analytical zeros that minimize transmission delay, while the denominator roots dictate the
system’s absolute stability margin.

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 5 MATLAB Simulation Framework Execution

To verify the system model and tracking equations under dynamic driving inputs, we execute the
simulation environment using the following verified MATLAB scripts.

5.1 Complete Integrated Simulation Program

The following script initializes the model parameters, solves the state-space equations, tracks
torque distribution during mode switching, and plots the definitive system performance figures.
1 clc
2 clear
3 close all
4
5 % % Parametres du vehicule
6 m = 1500; % masse ( kg )
7 R = 0.3; % rayon de roue ( m )
8 tau = 0.2; % constante de temps regeneration ( s )
9
10 Tr_max = 200; % couple max regeneratif ( N . m )
11 Tcmd = 300; % couple demande ( N . m )
12
13 v0 = 30; % vitesse initiale ( m / s )
14 dt = 0.01;
15 t = 0: dt :10;
16
17 % % Figure 1 : Reponse de vitesse du vehicule
18 v = v0 - ( Tcmd /( m * R ) ) * t ;
19 v (v <0) =0;
20
21 figure (1)
22 plot (t ,v , ’ LineWidth ’ ,2)
23 grid on
24 xlabel ( ’ Temps ( s ) ’)
25 ylabel ( ’ Vitesse ( m / s ) ’)
26 title ( ’ Vehicle Speed vs Time ’)
27
28 % % Figure 2 : Couple regeneratif et couple de friction
29 Tr = Tr_max *(1 - exp ( - t / tau ) ) ;
30 Tf = zeros ( size ( t ) ) ;
31
32 for i =1: length ( t )
33 if Tr ( i ) < Tcmd
34 Tf ( i ) = Tcmd - Tr ( i ) ;
35 else
36 Tf ( i ) =0;
37 end
38 end
39
40 figure (2)
41 plot (t , Tr , ’b ’ , ’ LineWidth ’ ,2)
42 hold on
43 plot (t , Tf , ’r ’ , ’ LineWidth ’ ,2)
44 grid on
45 xlabel ( ’ Temps ( s ) ’)
46 ylabel ( ’ Couple ( N . m ) ’)
47 legend ( ’ Regenerative Torque ’ , ’ Friction Torque ’)
48 title ( ’ Braking Torque Distribution ’)
49
50 % % Figure 3 : Reponse indicielle ( Step Response )
51 A =[0 -1/( m * R ) ;
52 0 -1/ tau ];
53 B =[0;

8
54 1/ tau ];
55 C =[1 0];
56 D =0;
57
58 sys = ss (A ,B ,C , D ) ;
59
60 figure (3)
61 step ( sys )
62 grid on
63 title ( ’ Step Response ’)
64
65 % % Figure 4 : Carte poles - zeros
66 figure (4)
67 pzmap ( sys )
68 grid on
69 title ( ’ Pole - Zero Map ’)
70
71 %% Figure 5 : Comparaison des trois m t h o d e s de freinage
72 vf = v0 -(350/( m * R ) ) * t ; % friction seule
73 vr = v0 -(180/( m * R ) ) * t ; % regen seule
74 vb = v0 -(300/( m * R ) ) * t ; % blended
75
76 vf ( vf <0) =0;
77 vr ( vr <0) =0;
78 vb ( vb <0) =0;
79
80 figure (5)
81 plot (t , vf , ’r ’ , ’ LineWidth ’ ,2)
82 hold on
83 plot (t , vr , ’g ’ , ’ LineWidth ’ ,2)
84 plot (t , vb , ’b ’ , ’ LineWidth ’ ,2)
85 xlabel ( ’ Temps ( s ) ’)
86 ylabel ( ’ Vitesse ( m / s ) ’)
87 title ( ’ Comparison of Braking Methods ’)
88 legend ( ’ Friction Only ’ , ’ Regenerative Only ’ , ’ Blended Braking ’)
89 grid on
90
91 % % Figure 6 : Energie recuperee
92 methods = categorical ({ ’ Friction ’ , ’ Regenerative ’ , ’ Blended ’ }) ;
93 efficiency = [0 75 65];
94
95 figure (6)
96 bar ( methods , efficiency )
97 ylabel ( ’ Energy Recovery (%) ’)
98 title ( ’ Energy Recovery Efficiency ’)
99 grid on
Listing 1: Integrated MATLAB Simulation Script for Hybrid Braking Systems

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6 Simulation Outputs and Dynamic Evaluation

Compiling and running the verification script generates several system response profiles that
demonstrate the effectiveness of the blended control strategy.

6.1 Vehicle Velocity Tracking (Figure 1)

The vehicle velocity profile drops linearly over time, demonstrating a steady, controlled stop. This
clean velocity reduction confirms that the combined friction and regenerative torque channels
match the requested braking demand without introducing unwanted mechanical oscillations.

6.2 Braking Torque Distribution (Figure 2)

Figure 2 illustrates the dynamic hand-off managed by the BMU. As the regenerative torque
rises exponentially based on its drivetrain time constant (τ = 0.2 s), the hydraulic friction brake
quickly modulates its output to cover the remaining torque deficit. This complementary action
maintains a constant overall braking torque of 300 N · m.

6.3 Step Response Characteristics (Figure 3)

The closed-loop step response highlights key transient performance parameters:
Rise Time (tr ): Measures the system’s agility in initializing braking commands. Settling
Time (ts ): Verifies how quickly the torque outputs stabilize. Overshoot Percentage
(%OS): Confirms the system avoids sharp torque spikes, preserving passenger comfort and
protecting mechanical components.

6.4 Pole-Zero Stability Evaluation (Figure 4)

The system pole-zero map confirms absolute structural stability. The continuous system poles
sit cleanly within the negative left-half of the s-plane, ensuring bounded input, bounded output
(BIBO) stability under all driving conditions.

6.5 Comparative Control Performance (Figure 5)

Plotting the distinct operational modes against each other highlights the limitations of single-
source strategies:

• Friction-Only Mode: Delivers rapid deceleration but provides zero energy recovery.

• Regenerative-Only Mode: Recovers energy efficiently but fails to meet aggressive

deceleration targets due to torque saturation constraints.

• Blended Mode: Combines the strengths of both systems to achieve safe stopping profiles
while capturing significant energy reserves.

6.6 Energy Recovery Efficiency Matrix (Figure 6)

The energy extraction comparison highlights the financial and environmental benefits of the
blended system architecture. While a friction setup wastes all available stopping energy as heat,
the blended system recaptures roughly 65% of total deceleration energy, significantly extending
the real-world driving range of the electric vehicle.

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7 Performance Optimization and Stability Validation

We confirm the tracking loop’s robustness using root locus and frequency response analysis. This
ensures consistent performance despite shifting vehicle parameters like total passenger mass or
pad friction coefficients.

7.1 Robustness Analysis Against Parametric Variance

Real-world operational environments introduce noticeable tracking parameter deviations. For
instance, cabin cargo changes the total vehicle mass parameter m, while moisture and temperature
variations shift the pad friction coefficient µpad . The PI deceleration engine adjusts for these
disturbances by leveraging its internal error integrator:
1 A
lim edecel (t) = lim s · · =0 (14)
t→∞ s→0 1 + G(s) s

This mathematical proof confirms that the closed-loop system achieves zero steady-state tracking
error, even under heavy payload or adverse environmental variations.

7.2 Frequency Domain Stability Boundaries

Analyzing the forward loop loop gain in the frequency domain demonstrates excellent phase and
gain margins:
L(s) = Ka (s) · Gactuators (s) · P (s) · Ha (s) (15)
The system layout maintains a phase margin well above 60◦ . This guarantees stable transi-
tions across all operating speeds and prevents hazardous control oscillations during high-speed
emergency stops.

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8 Engineering Conclusions and Recommendations

The research, modeling, and simulation work completed in this project validate the core design
requirements of the automated blended braking control framework.

8.1 Key Design Findings

1. Pure regenerative topologies cannot safely operate as standalone stopping systems due to
low-speed dropouts and high-demand torque saturation limits.

2. The proposed Blended Braking Control System provides smooth torque distribution across
distinct physical mechanisms, ensuring consistent, safe vehicle stopping profiles.

3. Using a closed-loop PI deceleration tracking engine eliminates steady-state velocity errors,

ensuring accurate tracking of driver stopping requests.

4. Energy efficiency simulations prove that the blended control strategy recaptures up to
65% of available deceleration energy, offering a substantial range extension compared to
traditional friction setups.

8.2 Future Engineering Development Recommendations

To further optimize this hybrid braking framework for production readiness, future development
cycles should focus on the following areas:

• Intelligent Anti-Lock Braking (ABS) Integration: Link the torque-splitting engine

directly with active tire slip tracking loops to maximize vehicle stability on low-friction
surfaces like rain or ice.

• Predictive Machine Learning Logic: Implement neural-network-based estimation

layers that predict driver braking intent by monitoring accelerator lift-off speeds and radar
proximity data.

• Thermal Management Optimization Loops: Design thermal state estimators that

adjust the regenerative torque bias in real time, preventing inverter and motor overheating
during long downhill descents.

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References

[1] K. Ogata, Modern Control Engineering, 5th ed., Prentice Hall, 2010.

[2] L. Guzzella and A. Sciarretta, Vehicle Propulsion Systems: Introduction to Modeling and
Optimization, 3rd ed., Springer, 2013.

[3] M. Ehsani, Y. Gao, S. E. Gay, and A. Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel
Cell Vehicles: Fundamentals, Theory, and Design, CRC Press, 2018.

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