DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES INVOLVING THE TRIBES : A CASE STUDY

Author(s): Md. Ayub Mallick

Source: The Indian Journal of Political Science, OCT. - DEC., 2009, Vol. 70, No. 4 (OCT. -
DEC., 2009), pp. 1053-1084
Published by: Indian Political Science Association
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TheIndian Journal ofPolitical Science
[Link],No. 4,Oct. -Dec., 2009, pp. 1053-1084

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES INVOLVING THE TRIBES :

A CASE STUDY

Md. Ayub Mallick

Tribal population inJamalpur block area within thedistrict of Burdwan is mixed in

character and settled agriculturists in nature. They maintain their livelihood by
undertaking a number of occupations likesettled agriculture, industrial and agricultural
labour, animal husbandry, fishing, trade and commerce of which handicraft industry is
of prime importance. The development programmes involving these tribal peoples
were involved with these occupations. However, development process has widened the
gap between therichand thepoor. Socially, economically and politically, theyhave
been disposed and dehumanized. Lack of responsive leaders is a major problem in
theformulation of development programmes. He need is leadership from among them.
But tribalparticipation and tribalperception are not actually taken into account inthe
process of tribal development. Development programmes forthetribais are mainly
based on wage employment and house building and house repair loan, which take
recourse tostatus quo maintenance giving only side payments tothedowntrodden in
thegame of power politics, power intheforms of wealth and leverage. They have had
tosuccumb tothepressure and pull of market economy and politico-economic leverage
of tribaland non-tribal haves and neo-haves. Infact, thedevelopment programmes are
intended tomitigate thefeelings ofrelative deprivation and tolessen therisk of violent
upsurge. The tribal people lack entrepreneurial initiative. Mere management of
development programmes would not make tribal development a sustainable one with
fairand equitable distribution of income, power and opportunities. To ensure man-
nature-society symbiotic relationship without generating conflicts between them
emphasis should be laid on maximization ofcreative participation and minimization of
socio-economic disorder.

Man is a tribal animal. T ribalism is a two-way sword. The tribal feelings are inthemselves
neutral, they can be used constructively or destructively. Tribalism cannot be suppressed
because they are too basic. Denial of the expression of tribalism may or might cause
resistance. Though the primitive mode vanishes with the wider impact of modernism, still
tribalism lives on. Modernism denotes larger and more heterogeneity and the larger and more

heterogeneous modern societies become, the more people are inclined to recreate the tribe,
where a sense of 'belonging' is still prevalent. There are the feelings of homogeneity,

heterogeneity, identity and conformity. As urbanization and industrialization grew rapidly in

our country the tribais were transformed, but those tribais who did not get into the mainstream
ofchange, naturally got isolated. The basic fact of their culture is that itis an integrated whole.
Itacts like the life-blood. Members of the tribal society do not consciously feel they belong to
[Link] accept [Link], inour modern society tribal life has no isolated spots. Everything
isrelated. Following a modern line of approach, we can designate them 'marginal' or 'preliterate'
or'pre-farming' societies to indicate their precise ecological, modern educational and
contemporary economic problems. Itis to be noted here that there is change. The 'marginal'
as termed by Ratzel or 'preliterate' as termed by Gisbert are being transformed. Among the
same tribes certain sections may undergo a rapid transformation which acquires characteristics
thatmay disqualify them as 'preliterate' or 'pre-farming' though some of their social customs
may persist.

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1054
The study has been confined to observation inone area only. Jamalpur block is one of
the less developed or underdeveloped blocks inthe district of Burdwan. The district of Burdwan,
one of the western districts of Burdwan Division, is situated between 22° 560 and 23° 530
north latitude and between 86° 480 and 88° 250 east longitude. Burdwan, the principal town
and administrative headquarter, is situated on the north bank of Banka, some 2 miles from
Damodar river, in 23° 140 north latitude and 87° 510 east latitude. The district lies mainly
between the Ajay, the Bhagirathi or Hooghly and the Damodar rivers. Itis bounded on the
north by Santal Parganas, Birbhum and Murshidabad; on the east by Nadia; on the south by

Hooghly, Midnapore and Bankura; and on the west by Manbhum. The Ajay separates iton the
north from the Birbhumand Murshidabad district forming a natural boundary line. On the south
the Damodar, running parallel to the Ajay forms the main boundary. On the west the Barakar
passes along the north-western boundary for few miles before its junction with the Damodar
and divides the district from Manbhum. On the east the Hooghly forms the main boundary with
Nadia. The south-eastern boundary marches with the Hooghly district. The natural boundaries
formed by the great rivers to the north, east and south are fairly constant. The Damodar, the
sacred river of the Santals, rises inthe Chota Nagpur water-shed and, after a south-easterly
course of about 350 miles, falls into the Hooghly. The river takes a sharp bend to the north-
east and after passing close to the town of Burdwan turns due south and eventually leaves the
district near the village of Mchanpur. The principal places on its banks are Kasba Gohagram,

Gopalpur, Jamalpur and Selimabad, situated at its junction with the Kana river which here
flows out of the parent stream.

The population is a mixed one, including pure Hindu castes, semi-aboriginals recently
admitted in the pale of Hinduism, and pure aboriginal tribes. Living inthe same district, and
often in the same village, the Hindu and the semi-Hinduized aboriginal nevertheless present
differences in their habits and ways of living. They are incapable of forethought and consume
their earnings without a thought for the future. Most of them work as agricultural labourers than
as cultivators. They drink more. The mass of the Hindu population is dead against drink and
drunkenness. In their social and religious ceremonies the semi-Hinduized aborigines are every
day being drawn closer to Hinduism. The more respectable and advanced among them may
indeed be said to have adopted Hinduism inall its main features, while even the most backward
castes have adopted some Hindu customs.

The rainfall being often deficient in total amount or irregular in distribution, artificial
irrigation is necessary for almost all the important crops. There is only one protective irrigation
work, the Eden Canal, an irrigation channel 22 miles inlength from Kanchannagar to Jamalpur.
In this area, aus, aman and boro rice are sown. Jute is also sown infew places. Cultivation of

potato, onion, sugarcane, vegetables and other valuable crops are made inthis area.

There are four main tribes in this area V*Santal, Kora, Oraon, Bhumij etc. The
demographic and socio-economic profiles of the tribes of this district and the block under
study are presented below (Table Nos. 1&2):

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1055

Table 1 : Demographic and Socio-economic Profiles of the

Tribes in the District and Block
Block District

Total population- 2, 11,957

Total male population - 1,08,435

Total female population - 1,03,522

Total ST population - 32,890 (15% in comparison with total population) 3,76,033

Total ST male population - 16,389 1,90,969

Total ST female population - 16,501 1,85,064

No. of ST households - 6,793 (All rural)

Total §T population in the age group (0-6) - 7,108 78,088

Total ST male population inthe age group (0-6) - 3,5 11 39,092

Total ST female population inthe age group (0-6) - 3,597 38,996

Total ST literate - 5,436 77,404

Total ST male literate - 4,263 55,737

Total ST female literate - 1,173 21,667

Total ST main workers - 17,167 1,67,394

Total ST male main workers - 8,628 97,745

Total ST female main workers - 8.539 69,649

Total ST cultivators - 1,507 16,899

Total ST male cultivators - 1,019 12,222

Total ST female cultivators - 488 4,677

Total ST agricultural labourers - 15,186 1,21,873

Total ST male agricultural labourers - 7,214 63,564

Total ST female agricultural labourers - 7,972 58,309

Total ST engaged inlivestock, forestry, -

fishing, housing etc. 26
409

Total ST male engaged inlivestock, forestry, -

fishing, housing etc. 25 347

Total ST female engaged inlivestock, forestry,fishing, housing etc.

-1 62

Total ST engaged inminning and quarring etc. - 1 10,926

Total ST male engaged inminning and quarring etc. - 1 9,107

Total ST female engaged inminning and quarring etc. - 0 1,821

Total ST engaged inmanufacturing and processing inhousehold industry etc. - 20 1,364

Total ST male engaged inmanufacturing and processing inhousehold industry etc.- 13 461

Total ST female engaged inmanufacturing and processing inhousehold industry etc -7 903

Total ST engaged inmanufacturing and processing inother than household industry 6,818
QJL - '

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1056

T otal ST engaged inconstruction -31 1,056

Total ST male engaged inconstruction - 22 789

Total ST female engaged inconstruction -9 267

Total ST engaged intrade and commerce - 51 860

Total ST male engaged intrade and commerce - 41 712

Total ST female engaged intrade and commerce - 10 148

Total ST engaged intransport, storage and communication - 177 2,242

Total ST male engaged intransport, storage and communication - 176 2,153

Total ST female engaged intransport, storage and communication - 1 89

Total ST engaged inother services - 82 4,945

Total ST male engaged inother services - 76 3,922

Total ST female engaged inother services -6 1,023

Total ST as marginal workers - 244 7,382

Total ST male as marginal workers -104 2,123

Total ST female as marginal workers - 140 5,259

Total ST as non-workers - 15,479 2,05,257

Total ST male as non-workers - 7,657 91,101

Total ST female as non-workers - 7,822 1,10,156

Source: Census ofIndia, 1991

Table 2: Socio-economic Profiles of the Tribes in the Block

Parameter N umber/Percentage
Total geographical area 259.89 square kilometers
Total households 39,564 (1991)
Parameter Number/Percentage
Total ST households 6,793 (All rural)
ST fertility rate Relatively high or medium
ST mortality rate Relatively high
ST landholding pattern (patta and barga) 474.80 acres of land distributed to 506 STs and
2200.95 acres of land under barga operation
among 2248 STs
Number of hospitals, dispensaries, clinics, Hospitals: 2, Dispensaries: 5, Clinics: 38, Health
health centres and family welfare centres Centres: 5, Family Welfare Centres: 38
Common diseases among STs Skin diseases, respiratory problems, diarrhorea,
anemia, inter-intestinal diseases, malaria, illness
etc

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1057

Number of primary schools 165

Number of secondary schools 22
Number of higher secondary schools 7
Number of junior high schools
Number of junior high madrasha 1
Number of high madrasha 1
Number of shjshu shikha kendra 22
Number of continuing education centres 70
Number of ICDS Centres 244
Number of STs under ICDS Pregnant mother: 230, Nursing mother: 33 1,
Child from 7 months to 1 year: 346, Child from 1
year to 3 years: 1474, Children from 3 years to 6
years: 1966 (upto Nov. 2002)
Number of anganwadi centres 244
Number of STs in angamvadi centres Pregnant mother: 181, Nursing mother: 261 ,
Child from 7 months to 1 year: 240, Child from 1
year to 3 years: 1058, Children from 3 years to 6
years: 1408 (upto Nov. 2002)
Number of public libraries 8
Number of villages or mouzas electrified 122
Number of villages having drinking water 123
facilities
Total agricultural land 2 1,200 hectares
Total irrigated area 19,747.6 hectares
Cultivable waste land Nil
Homestead land 267 hectares
Forest land Nil
Area where more than one crops grown 19,200 hectares
Main source of income of the majority Agriculture
Main source of income of ST population Agriculture
Main crops of the area Pacjdy, Potato and Vegetables
Quantity of crop production per year Rice: Aman: 17,200 hectares/3866 kg. (Approx.),
Aus: 4025 hectares/4423 kg. (Approx.), Boro:
10,500 hectares/3880 kg. (Approx.), Potato:
10,500 hectares/27,400 kg. (Approx.)
Number of seed store 1
Number of fertilizer depots 26
Number of co-operatives 52
Number of shallow tube vyells/areas 2740/2847. 88hectares
Number of banks operating 1_2
Number of hats 8
Number of local markets 7
Number of post office Sub-post office: 4, ED-post office: 28
Number of pucca roads Surface (PWD) metalloid inKms.: 45, Non-
surface (PWD) metalloid inKms.: 16
Number of bus routes 4
Number of nearest railway stations covering 4
the area
Number of ferryghat U
Number of small industries 130
Number of rice mills 3

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1058
Number of agro-based industry Nil (there is scope forfurther
improvement)
Number of ST student hostel 1 (there is scope forfurther
improvement)
Sources of drinking water Tube wells
Number of recreation centres Vedio: 7, Cinema: 1
Number of telephone exchanges 6
Number of stadium Ni]
Number of policc station 1
Number of ration shops 66
Mandays created inagricultural fields per 180 days to 210 days
year
ST life expectancy 57 to 62 years
ST male life expectancy 55 to 60 years
ST female life expectancy 60 to 65 years
ST adult literacy rate 9.53% on average as per 1991 census
25.39% on average as per survey result
ST CEC enrolled presence 30.07%
Percentage of ST s of not surviving more than 84.7%
60 years
Percentage of STs of not surviving atthe age 57%
of 60
Percentage of ST people living below the 33.52% incomparison to total ST households
income poverty line 8.38% incomparison tototal ST population as per
Block Report dt.16.1 1.01 under Memo No.
1147(31)PAN toSecond State Finance
Commission
4.61% incomparison tototal households
Long-term (12 month or more) 0
unemployment among ST people
Estimated earned income or GDP per capita Rs. 10,725 per annum as agricultural labourers
as single w age labourer who constitute about 80% of the tribal population
Men's (ST) percentage of shares inpanchayat 10.24% incomparison to total representation
seats
Women's (ST) percentage of shares in 5.11% incomparison tototal representation
panchayat seats
STs percentage of shares inpanchayat seats 15.35% ST male-female combined
Men's (ST) estimated earned income as Rs. 9,900
single wage labourer
Women's (ST) estimated earned income as Rs. 11,550
single wage labourer
Sources : Field Survey, Block Development Office,
Block Land and Land Reforms Office
and Block Hospital,
Jamalpur, Burdwan.

Tribal people in the study area maintain their livelihood by undertaking a number of

occupations like settled agriculture, industrial and agricultural labour, animal husbandry, fishing,
trade and commerce of which household industry including handicrafts is of prime importance.
It is a fact that development has become an enemy of some tribal groups. Development
process has made the poor poorer. Planning administered by economists and bureaucrats is
almost centralized. People's participation is not envisaged asan integral part of development.
Numerical smallness, low level of literacy, simple technology and primitive agricultural pursuits
V*all have made their development to a negligible extent. They need nursing and care. Present

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1059

tribal development approach lays emphasis on area development. The Sub-Plan for tribal area
is basically a plan with an area development V*development of agriculture, land reclamation
and land development, group demonstration and input assistance. Development projects like
digging of wells, promotion of lift
irrigation, animal husbandry, and poultry farming are important
inT ribal Sub-Plan. Subsidiary income earning projects are encouraged. The aspirations and
felt needs of the tribais are not taken into consideration. It(development) stands for the rise in

the standard of living of the weaker sections, participation of the weaker sections in the
decision making process and inthe affairs of the larger society and the state, freedom from
poverty, unconstrained development of individual personality. The development process has
widened the gap between the rich and the poor. No society is free from vested interests.
Conservatists adhere to traditionalism and resist change. Technological and economic
development in tribal society without necessary changes in the value-attitude system is a
fundamental obstacle to the economic development of the society. Planners and executors of
development programmes do not pay attention to these problems. Socially, economically and
politically, they have been dispossessed and dehumanized. The benefits of development have
been siphoned off from them. In this respect the tribais must be empowered at first and they
should participate inthe development process. They must be adequately rehabilitated and
enabled to develop according to their own pace and pattern. In fact, the efforts of development
are not much conducive to the participation of the tribais. The development programmes have
failed to uplift the lot of the poor tribais, creating rather an artificial demarcation between the
mass of the poor tribais on the one hand, and microscopic minority of the elite and affluent
tribais and non-tribals, on the other. Industrialization has uprooted the tribais from their traditional
occupations, decreased the hold of the tribais on local natural resources, resulting in the
deterioration in their life quality and quality of tribal employment.

Apart from the recommendations for development of primitive tribes that (1 ) they should
be provided with basic necessities of life like health, nutrition, education and employment; (2)
they should be assisted with traditional occupation and not sudden structural change in
economic base, routinized dealing and doing disposal as we do inBlocks and elsewhere have
harmed them and itought to be stopped. Here, I stress on routinized dealing and doing
disposal. The tribais under study in Jamalpur block of Burdwan district and development
programmes involving these tribes are examples of implementation of 'directed change' (Danda,
1988) initiated through programmes of community development and Panchayati Raj inWest
Bengal village. Implementation of community development programmes brought about certain
immediate material changes, i.e. social, economic, political and cultural to a limited extent.
There are not too much changes inthe community power structure and control of economic
resources. There are positive changes in the rules of commensality, untouchability, caste
order and social distance. There is dismemberment of traditional authority structure and value

system. In spite of economic disparities and exploitation of one class by another, people were

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1060

psychologically united inceremonial ties before the onset of fast moving changes since the
sixties. But on account of the work of modern forces represented by communication facilities,
media exposure, growth of literacy and changing political scenes, the village is now a house
divided. The traditional power structure has ceased to function (Bhowmick, 1988). However,
the tradition is not an isolated phenomenon inthe developmeni efforts. In fact, the tradition is

interposed between developmental efforts and the end result of such efforts as a 'screen'
(Fig. 1). The traditional forces maintain status quo and neutralize modernizing effects of
development efforts. Tradition itself sometimes get changed and modified inthe process of
interaction. In these development efforts tradition has an important role to play. The community,
which has emerged from pre-agricultural technology to settled agricultural practices, is not

totally divorced from tradition. The development objectives, goals and strategies or programmatic

goals should have to be :

Objective : Development in relation with the mainstream

Prime goal : Development of the community and development of the individual,

particularly the 'down-trodden'

Programmatic goals and activities : Improvement of income and income generating

assets V*improvement of land base, application of improved technology in agriculture,
development of subsidiary occupation and creation of additional employment opportunities

Protection from exploitation - institutionalization of credit and marketing facilities,

restriction against land alienation, fair wages for labour

- identification of
Improvement of interaction with other groups and administration
tribal leaders and educating and socializing them for better interaction, representation insocial,
economic and political institutions

There is the need for comprehensive tribal development model. In this process of tribal
development rapid change is undesirable. Hence, cultural evolution and diffusion of culture are
the instrumental realities. In these process of cultural evolution and diffusion there is the need
to establish cultural equilibrium. Responsive leadership accompanied with the development

process would make the development real (Block Development Officer).

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1061

X Economic growth

- r+i
Investment and T
adoption of
Development efforts technology
R

Development of
human resource A ç
▼
H
i~ b
. , ,~ Institutional D
Social change . ,
arrangement and ^
infrastructural
development I ^

G
Education, T
awareness £
through
communication, I
modifications in
values, norms,
attitude and socio C
-economic
relation
N

Opportunities
and services

Others

Fig. 1

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1062
Lack of this responsive leadership widens the gap between the tribal people and the
general people. There is the need for anthropologically trained workers. The tribesmen are
suspicious of Government and their agents. They have no faith inany government welfare
measures. They generally wish to be left alone. In this welter of suspicion, mistrust and
frustration, the tribesmen badly need the services of men who would restore their faith, interpret
to them the policies of the governments and also act as a two-way channel of communication
between the tribesmen and the local government (Aiyappan, 1988). Therefore, the need is
leadership from among them. Recognizing this imperative need, Panchayati Raj institutions
have provided this opportunity to the tribais and avenues for creation of social and administrative
interms of economic benefits flowing from economic schemes,
infrastructure, tribal participation

voluntary contributions, and participation indifferent community activities and inpanchayat

elections. 'Development plans for the tribais should have a wide range of variability and should
be formulated accordingly. There is differential development among the tribais themselves and
consequently of their needs. Plans must be inconformity with classificatory tribal communities.'
(Narayan, 1988: 139). But the plans are uniformly formulated, and tribais interests and problems
are not taken into account specifically. Development implies integration of social and economic
development, includes mainly development of man power, employment opportunities, increase
in the level of real income and wages, constructive use of leisure time, development of
agriculture, industry, mining, power, transport and communication facilities, water resources
etc. (Qureshi, 1971 : 12). The comprehensive tribal development model includes three models
of social policy 3Aresidual welfare model: individual is the unit and instrument of his own
welfare. Under this model the individual is provided with temporary help to become self-reliant
and confident. The achievement performance model: social needs of the individuals should be
provided on the bases of merit, achieved status differentials, work performance and productivity.
Institutional redistribution model: the individuals are provided with basic welfare services

irrespective of income, education and caste etc. This model is based on the principle of social
justice. Not only integration of social and economic development, tribal development also
implies integration of the tribal people with the rest of the Indian population. 'It implies policy of
"Social Symbiosis" or "Social Commensalism" whereby there might be a sort of "cultural
federation" inwhich people of different cultures and shades and values may live
of opinion

together "without fusion, having symbiotic or commensal relationship with one another" and
without the "necessity of ironing out cultural differences", thus providing a "modus vivendi for
cultural miscegenation".' (Majumdar, 1947: 147). In this process of development different
sections of the rural populace have been affected differently. The development programmes
have benefited the upper middle, middle and richer sections much more than the lower middle
and poorer sections. There is 'growth of inequality' (Dandekar and Rath, 1971: 28) in this
process. 'Consequently, the extent of participation inthe development process and share in
the development gains become a direct function of one's pre-determined resources position.

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1063

The small and marginal farmers, owing to low and deficient farm level infrastructures, obviously
had limited capacity to benefit from the development strategy with its bias for the land factor.'
(Jodha: 634).

What is interesting to note here is that with the advancement of capitalism in India the
class society has failed to absorb within its orbit the caste society. There is no denying of the
fact that the adivasi problem inIndia has not been properly dealt with even after independence.
The tribais of this block of Burdwan district consist of Santals, Kora, Oraon, Bhumij etc.
Among them the Santals predominate. The contrast with the non-tribals, colonial domination
and post-colonial subjugation disrupted deep-rooted and profoundly evocative Santal cultural
patterns. The tribal-non-tribal contradiction is considered to be responsible for the failure of
tribal integration. Colonial impact, post-colonial development and contact with the non-tribals
have had brought about a very small section of the tribais a change in status. This Sanskritization
process has alienated the elite section of the tribais from their own community. The post-
colonial development scenario tillthe 90s revealed that insincere attempts to integrate the
tribais with the mainstream led to a failure.

Tribal development planning has now become a concurrent exercise with planning at
the state and national level. With the process of economic development inthe country, many
of the tribal areas were opened up and the process of change started. But insome cases this

give rise to situation of competition between the two systems of unequal strength. The
a
development programmes necessarily did not provide better deal for the tribal communities
(Field Survey). Benefits were cornered by the non-tribals, in general. In the Fifth Plan a new
approach was initiated towards the end of tribal development aiming at harmony between
conflicting situation and balanced development with a tribal bias. Though tribal development
consists of deliberate efforts by the tribais in association with planners, administrators, elite
groups and anthropologists to orient them with new socio-cultural ways of life, itis no longer
tribal development inreal sense of the term. When the tribal people really feel that their quality
of life, which they aspire for, has been achieved so far, then we can claim it to be tribal

development. In the tribal process two things are important: tribal participation and tribal
perception. The present development programmes are oriented towards indirect approach to
the problems of poverty and unemployment The technical and financial assistance is generally
not accessible to weaker sections. A sizeable portion of non-viable farmers has moved to

wage employment. government machinery is neither structurally suited nor

In fact, the

psychologically oriented towards the problems of weaker sections. Therefore, tribal participation
and tribal perception are not actually taken into account in the process of tribal development.
However, they are put on the road of development and progress, whatever may be the pattern
and trend of development. T ribal development in Dangs district of Gujrat may be cited as an
example. Dangs is the remotest tribal district of Gujrat state in India. The Dangs tribais live

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Thè Indiati Journal of Political Science 1064

amidst nature endowed with balanced ecological conditions. Tribal characteristics largely
stem from their long isolation and strong kinship feelings with the groups. Earlier attempts to
introduce socio-economic reformations in their life have so far met with little success due to
their strong adherence to the age-old traditional systems. They are exploited by the vested
interests. They view any external incursions into their realms of life and activity with concern
and suspicion. Before embarking on any replacçpient intribal life,one should be sure that this
change brings tribal trust and derive better benefits. Role of government, public, co-opêrative
and voluntary agencies have little perceptible impacts. The isolated and individualistic
approaches have not yet led to their fast progress. However, the tribais are put on the road of
development and progress. Agricultural development is the primary aim of all developmental
efforts. The first relates about diary development and this activity provides employment and
earns supplementary income. Second activity deals with Agricultural Research Station to
extend research to tribais and third activity relates with adoption of Hybrid Jowar to improve
their economy (Waghmare, 1988). These tribal development programmes are devoid of tribal

participation and perception.

In the tribaldevelopment efforts agricultural development is the primary development

efffort. 'Agricultural production is a cooperative enterprise of the central and state governments
on one hand and cultivators on the other. The Constitution of India has visualized promotion of
agricultural production as basic responsibility of the state governments. Ithas also caused a
number of responsibilities on the centre with direct or indirect basing on agriculture.' (Muttalib,
1973: 69). Agricultural operations intribal areas, both the settled and shifting types, mostly
depended on rains and unpredictable nature. Lack of practice of soil and water conservation
measures, lack of exposure to and knowledge of improved agricultural techniques, low
investments, crippling indebtedness, made the tribal agriculture to remain mostly precarious
and at subsistence levels. The economic programmes of the tribal development agencies are
generally directed towards ensuring an immediate boost to the agricultural and horticultural
production in tribal areas, to improve the economic conditions of the landless among
the

tribais by providing them with land and non-land inputs, to reorganize the cooperative and

marketing structure and to provide employment and increased income to the tribais.
To improve
the economic conditions of the tribais two types of development programmes are initiated in
development areas. They are family based programmes and area-based programmes.
tribal
The former includes land redistribution, land reclamation, land development and soil conservation
measures, supply of agricultural inputs, promotion of village and cottage industries, animal
construction of
husbandry, business and others etc. The area-based programmes emphasize
roads, tubewells, sanitation etc., minor irrigation and liftirrigation schemes, construction of
shishu shikha kendras, free primary schools and anganwadi centres etc., and other community
development programmes. Tribal development programmes may also be divided
into
the tribes. The
programmes directly benefiting the tribes and programmes indirectly benefiting

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1065

development programmes serve dual purpose at least restoring confidence among the tribais
and bringing them in closer contact with the outside world. The community development
programmes provide the tribais labour-based employment or wage employment and help them
in earning daily wages. One of the most important programmes for tribal development would

be to secure rights on land which they may be cultivating as leaseholders or otherwise

(Sabhapati of Panchayat Samity). Creation of new job opportunities is another priority scheme.
development' effort attention must be directed towards the development of human
In this tribal

capital. Economic development is the function of efficient utilization of natural and human
resources. Human resource development is the solid function of tribal development. Therefore,
education should be main thrust of tribal development. Apartfrom education, human resource
development can be effectively attained through providing effective social services. Special
programmes may have to-be built into the programme of weaker sections that the tribais are
enabled to take a reasonable share inthe fruits of development of the area. The rate of subsidies
ineconomic programmes has to be higher as their resource-bases are very poor. In this tribal
development measures block has been accepted as the unit of planning for rural development.
The general programmes of development, particularly IRDP, TSP are limited to economic
development only. case of tribal communities, the social factors are equally important and
In

for that supplementary efforts should have to be added with the programmes like IRDP, TSP

etc. A great deal of improvement can be made ifthe shortcomings and defects are removed
and the programmes are made to fitnational and state plans through requisite modulation and
mutual accommodation. The major beneficiaries have become the non-tribals. The TSP brings
about not only financial investments but also an administrative apparatus. These two should
be much more balanced. 'The overall effects of the TSP have, therefore, been to offload sums
of money in tribal areas. ... On the face of it,itappears that improvement ininfrastructure has
occurred. ... major beneficiaries have been non-tribals, more used to its availment, rather than
tribais. ... Unless the development process posses a keen perception of socio-economic
nuances, steering through them to reach out to target groups, itbecomes counter-productive,
assome examples of tribal areas show.' (Singh, 1990: 101).

Change rather than continuity should figure prominently indevelopment schemes. The
main thrust of the constitutional provision for the scheduled tribes is to protect and promote
tribal interests through legal and administrative support and to raise the economic condition
and thereby upgrade their quality of life. Promotion of economic interests of the tribais has
been one of the planks of planned development. One of the consequences of the current

pattern of development is differential growth among the scheduled tribes. This

process is
being accentuated as education and opportunities inthe large economy become available to
tribais. The inequity of growth, however, can largely be attributed to the general process of

growth itself. With the process of modernization the inequalities of the scheduled tribes have
increased. 'It is generally true that the Scheduled Tribes are much more backward than the

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1066

Scheduled Castes inthe variables of modernization. While itis true that the Scheduled T ribes
are under-represented and the Scheduled Castes are over-represented, the former may have
an edge over the latter, the advantage in their case may be smaller than incase of Scheduled
Castes in a similar context. ... We may, therefore, formulate the structural hypotheses about
the mobility opportunities of the Scheduled T ribes as follows: First, the larger the percentage
of the Scheduled Tribes ina state, the lower are their chances of upward mobility and, second,
the higher the percentage of Scheduled Castes in a state the better are the chances of
mobility of the Scheduled Tribes." (D* Souza, 1990: 170). But the second hypothesis is weakened
because of the fact that the Scheduled T ribes are generally more backward than the Scheduled
Castes and is also not applicable in the study area. The bulk of the tribais is without benefits
and continues to live poverty and ignorance. The policies and schemes of the government
in

highlight the perpetuation of inequality syndrome. The elites are benefited from the development
schemes. They have taken maximum advantage of protective safeguards. The elites along
with other tribais are the victims of non-tribals. They are in alliance with the power and
bureaucratic elites control the power structure and exploit the tribais. The tribal elites instead
of 'becoming agents of change, ... have grabbed the major portion of the cake and contributed
to the deplorable condition of their people. ... Continuity is there, because earlier too, most
elites did control the resources. ... A society of equals would not have responded unequally to
the exogenous forces of change and development; nor would ithave solidified the process of
elite formation. The old elites have come to assume new positions, may be with some entry-
points for others but no exits. The result is undesirable trend to accentuation of inequalities.'
(Gupta, 1993: 501).

The rural areas inWest Bengal are characterized by accentuation of inequalities, poverty,
lack of productivity and lack of basic minimum services. Recognizing this the state has resorted
to direct intervention in tribal development. Different strategies emphasize different set of

policiesorder to achieve goals. The development policies are related to land, agriculture,
in

employment, education etc. Distribution of land and other assets is much skewed,
in rural

societies, characterized by large-scale employment on the one hand and lower productivity,
on the other. However, agriculture remains the main avenue of providing incomes and
employment in rural areas. The development programmes should be formulated through
institutions like panchayats, are powerful agents in implementing development strategies.
The development programmes are based on various approaches: Community Approach, Area
Development Approach, Target Group Approach, Employment Generation Approach, Poverty
Alleviation Approach, Social Welfare Approach, which are aimed at upliftment of the rural
mass based on economic criteria and social welfare measures. The Community Development
rural mass,
Programmes are aimed at the transformation of the socio-economic life of the
and
development of their material and human resources and development of rural leadership
In the Area
self-governing institutions. (Programme Officer, Jamalpur Panchayat Samity).

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1067

Development Approach, Intensive Agricultural District Programme, Drought Prone Areas

Programme, Desert Development Programme, Command Area Development Programme, Hill
Area Development Programme are important. This is the second phase of rural development
aiming at improving agricultural production due to population explosion, food shortages etc.
This growth-oriented agricultural development failed and special programmes for the weaker
sections like Small Farmers Development Agency, Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers
Programmes, T ribal Areas Development Programme and T ribal Sub-plans did not make much
improvement. The programmes for the tribais emphasize improvement of the quality of tribal
life, elimination of all forms of exploitation, speeding up the process of socio-economic

development and building up of confidence among them. Side by side, employment generation
schemes like Crash Scheme for Rural Employment, Social Forestry, Indira Abas Yojana and
Million Wells Scheme are important. Taking family as the unit of planning and employment
generation Integrated Rural Development Programme is aimed at removing poverty and
unemployment. The supporting component of IRDP is Training of Rural Youth for Self-
employment aiming at providing technical skills for rural youth living in poverty. With a view to
motivate women to take up income generating activities to supplement their family income
Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) groups have been formed.
Further, to enhance quality production and increase in income with the use of modern tools
Supply of Improved Toolkits to Rural Artisans (SITRA) programme has been launched. Previously
launched programmes like NRÉP and RLEGP have been merged into Jawahar Rozgar Yojana
( JRY) for improvement of rural infrastructure, creation of social assets and sustained employment
and increase in wage levels. Apartfrom JRY, the Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) is
likely to provide assured gainful employment to the rural poor. The rural poor for their livelihood
need few basic services and facilities of social consumption like elementary and adult education,
rural health, water supply, electrification etc. and to this end Minimum Needs Programme is
intended to establish a network of basic services. For making a well-knit and communicable
network of basic services improvement of the conditions of child and mother should have to be
made through Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) in terms of improvement of the
nutritional and health status of children in the age group of 0-6 years, psycho-physical and
social development of child, reduction in infant mortality and school and
dropout of children
enhancement of the nutritional needs of the child. Not only that. Under Central Rural Sanitation
Programme the central government decided to provide sanitary latrine to poor SCs and STs,
where the total resources are to be mobilized on a centre-state share of 50:50. Apart from
this, in the National Social Assistance Programme three schemes have been formulated V*
National Old Age Pension Scheme: benefits provided to aged and destitute persons receiving
Rs. 75 to 100 per month; National Family Benefit Scheme: benefits provided to persons in the
age group of 18-64 years receiving Rs. 500 in case of death due to natural causes and Rs.
10,000 in case of accidental death; National Maternity Benefit Scheme: benefits provided to

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1068

pregnant mother receiving Rs. 300-500 for pre-natal maternity care upto first two live births.

Despite various efforts made over few decades rural poverty continues to be significant.
Itis in this context earn be said that self-employment programmes assume great significance,
which alone can provide income to the rural poor. The multiplicity of programmes, viewed as
separate programmes, produced a lack social intermediation, absence of desired
of
communication or linkages between various programmes. The programmes were aimed at
achieving individual programme targets rather than substantive income generation. To make
the development programmes free of defects the Government has decided to restructure the

self-employment programme. For that in 1999 a new self-employment programme known as

Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) has been formulated interms of organization
of the poor, group formation, credit, training, technology and infrastructure. After coming into

operation of Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana, the programmes like IRDP, TRYSEM,
in

DWCRA, SITRA etc. are not in operation in building up potential of the rural poor {Block
Development Officer, 2003). In programmatic operation the Gram Sabha will identify the
beneficiaries. The programme is a combination of credit and subsidy and also lays emphasis
on training courses. The subsidy under SGSY will be 30 per cent of the project cost in general
and 50 per cent in case of SCs and STs. In the former the subsidy would not exceed the
maximum limit of Rs. 7,500 and in the latter itwould be Rs. 10,000.

Besides, SGSY, the indirect benefit programme is not upto the mark inproviding credit,
subsidy, technology and infrastructure to the scheduled tribes in this block. Only 37.25 per
cent and 14.28 per cent were benefited during 2001-02 and 2002-03. The year 2000-01 recorded
a big zero. Out of 114, 63 cases were sanctioned projecting only 55.26 per cent in total during
2000-03. The sanctioned cases decreased from 67.79 per cent to 37.25 per cent from 2000-01
to 2001 -02, which slightly increased to 43.75 per cent during 2002-03. The probable reasons
decreasing trend may be as insincere attitude of the beneficiaries to repay bank loans,
for this

to make the projects sanctioned a success; insincere attitude on the part of the Gram Sabha
members and party panchayat leaders to identify beneficiaries under SGSY and TSP; poverty;
ignorance about programmes and programme implementation; problems in identifying
beneficiaries or target groups as to non-repayment of bank loans; reluctance on the part of
banks to provide credit and subsidy etc. (Field Survey). Among the beneficiaries the tribal
people were least benefited.

Like SGSY, TSP is also an individual beneficiary scheme with a slight difference from
the former on the basis that the latter provides benefits directly to the tribais. Multiple programmes
or schemes such as paddy processing, vegetable business, grocery, van rickshaw, cycles
repairing etc. are associated with T ribal Sub-plan inJamalpur block area (SC and ST Inspector,
Jamalpur Panchayat Samity). So far the data received from the field level the actual target was
not achieved in identifying the beneficiaries. Further, 50 per cent or more individual cases were

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1069

deduced from the recommended figures. The operating banks Bardhaman Gramin Bank,
Jamalpur, State bank of India, Surekalna, Bank of India, Sahapur, Bardhaman Gramin Bank,
Atpara, Bardhaman Gramin Bank, Chakdighi, Bank of India, Karalaghat, Bardhaman Gramin
Bank, Ajhapur, State Bank of India, Nabagram, Bardhaman Gramin Bank, Masagram, Bank
of India, Jaugram etc. in this block area did not receive money in terms of repayment of loans
inmost cases, when the projects sanctioned were non-viable and not successful. The party
and panchayat leaders inidentifying TSP beneficiaries and bank authorities in providing TSP
loans are apathetic and reluctant.

On the average 48.24 per cent TSP cases were recommended by the Panchayat Samity
to various operating banks in this block area and out of this recommended figure in total (on
average) the bank authorities sanctioned less than 50 per cent of the recommended TSP
cases. Besides the individual benefit scheme for income generation, the community development
programmes particularly for the tribais in this block have been initiated taking Dhuluk village
under Panchra Gram Panchayat as model tribal village on the eve of 'Hul Utsav' on First July
of 2001 and undertaking various development schemes on and from that date :

(1) drinking water facility,

(2) construction of one ICDS centre,

(3) construction of link road,

(4) rural electrification,

(5) forestry,

(6) distribution of chicken among the tribal people,

(7) distribution of net and urn-shaped pot among seven tribal families,

(8) providing loan of Rs. 20,000 to five families each,

(9) immunization and health check up at free of cost,

(10) maintenance of 'Hul Utsav',

(11) distribution of ST certificates.

(12) house building loan to two families worth Rs. 20,000 each

Further, especially designed for the tribes book grant loan to ST students is a noteworthy
phenomenon in this block. Under various Memo Nos. the block sent to various schools the
book grant loans for ST students. The per head distribution of money granted for books was
round about Rs. 100 and compulsory charges were also not provided to all schools and in
but
every financial year. This financial aid is an effort towards the betterment of tribal students,
not conducive to their requirements. They need much more help in continuing their education.
For educational advancement of the tribal people economic and social safeguards are required

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1070
to be fulfilled. Itis to be noted here that the educational advancement of the tribal people is
negligible (Officer-in-Charge of CEC). To ensure universal adult education Continuing Education
Centres are working (CEC) in this block. Numerically, there are 70 centres in this area.
However, the progress of the Continuing Education Centres is not so good. Out of total enrolled
candidates the total candidates present inthese centres is not regular. The teaching procedure
Those who attend the classes only hear about but do not go through the
is not satisfactory.
overall teaching and learning process, do not suggest procedures for improvement of the
functioning of the Continuing Education Centres. They are not conscious about the functioning
of Preraks and Mukhya Preraks. The centres are devoid of functional literacy. However, there
is the influx of new learners these centres. Few months back the total learners present in
in

these centres were 16,353. Itincreased upto 593 in few months. The probable reasons for this
increasing trend may be mobilization of the illiterates to take part in the learning process in
CECs. As per report 2003, 30.07 per cent tribal learners and 57.16 per cent scheduled caste
learners participated the learning process of the CECs. On account of learner strength Chakdighi
Gram Panchayat ranks the highest and on account of number of centres Jarogram Gram
Panchayat merits consideration. Structural consideration or configuration and functional
deficiency are two main defects of Continuing Education Centres in this block. The defects
are also visible inthe functioning of the Integrated Child Development Scheme. The establishment
cost is greater than that of costs against food and medicine, while the former amounts to Rs.
67,66,435 and the latter Rs. 4,30,084 during the financial year of 2001-02. This makes'great
hindrance to Integrated Child Development Scheme. The block is covered with 244 ICDS
centres. The overall performance of Integrated Child Development Scheme as per monthly
progress report, Nov., 2002:

Number of ICDS centres - 244

Total number of ST s covered under ICDS:

-
Pregnant mother - 230, Nursing mother 331 , Child 7 months to 1 year
- 346, Child
1 year to 3 years - 1474, Children 3 years to 6 years - 1966
Number of anganwadi centres %244

Total number of STs covered inanganwadi centres:

Pregnant mother - 181 , Nursing mother- 261 , Child 7 months to 1 year

- 240, Child
1 year to 3 years - 1058, Children 3 years to 6 years - 1408

Therefore, establishment cost is greater than non-establishment cost, where Rs.

55,81 ,984 is spent on salary and honourarium heads. All pregnant and nursing mothers, child
and children covered under ICDS are not present in the anganwadi centres for help and care.
They do feel that the centres cannot provide help to pregnant and nursing mothers, child and
children what they actually need. The centres are devoid of all infrastructural and need-based

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1071

facilities. Rs. 583 per centre against medicine is deficient and insignificant for child development
and care for mothers. The total number of beneficiaries as per monthly progress report, Nov.,
2002 is Rs. 3148. Total cost against food and medicine is Rs. 4,30,084. Therefore, per head
and per centre distribution figures are Rs. 136.62 and Rs. 1762.63.

Apart from these, inview of overall unemployment and housing problems for the tribais
the Jamalpur Panchayat Samity has launched programmes like Sampurna Gramin Rojgar

Yojana and Indira Abas Yojana. As per National Sample Survey, 43rd Round, the percentage
of households or persons engaged in agriculture or as self-employed in case of scheduled
tribes is higher than that in case of scheduled castes but lower than that of other population.
The percentage in the field of others than self-employed and regular labour is the lowest in
case of scheduled tribes. The percentage of usually employed in case of scheduled tribes is
higher than scheduled caste and other population. Over the years the percentage has declined.
And agriculture continues to absorb a very high percentage of tribal workers (Ranjan, 1994).

Here, mention must be made of mere wage employment, which produced negligible income
generating asset for the tribais, but not sustained income generating asset, which is a sine
qua non for tribal development. Itis the prime goal for tribais upliftment. This goal of development
must be characterized by 'an equity that opposes all exploitation and inequality, a sustainability
a participation of people
that is ecologically sensitive to and respectful of the environment and
inboth making the decisions that affect their lives and implementing them as well.' (Heredia:
16). Apart from SGRY and IAY various development programmes under Jamalpur Panchayat
Samity were in operation. In all these development programmes the expenditure on health and
sanitation was minimum. In the field of construction of schools (ZP Fund) only 42.49 per cent
of money was spent. About 89.27 per cent on average were spent on infrastructural development
(Table No. 3). Most of the programmes were on wage employment, provided living subsistence
to the tribais. 'As per 1991 census the total scheduled tribe population numbering about 6.77
crore constitutes 8.18 per cent of total population while scheduled caste population numbering
13.82 crore forms 16.48 per cent population. Total main scheduled caste workers number
49.87 million composed of 36.58 million male and 13.28 million female workers. Total scheduled
tribe main workers number 28.47 million composed of 18.46 million male and 10.01 million
female workers. Work participation rate for scheduled tribe is 49.30 per cent against 39.25 per
cent for scheduled caste and 37.46 per cent for total population. The work participation rate for
scheduled tribe male and female are 54.74 per cent and 43.71 per cent respectively. The
corresponding figures for scheduled castes are 51 .48 per cent and 25.98 per cent and that for
total population are 51 .55 per cent and 22.25 per cent. Thus, compared with scheduled caste
and total population, work participation rates of scheduled tribe male and female are the
highest.' (Sahoo, 1996: 5). This trend is also confirmed in this study area taking monthly
progress report of SGRY-II, 31 .03.2002 and 31 .12.2002 as examples of work participation and

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1072

employment. I can put this as such :

SGRY-II Report, 31.03.2002 and 31.12.2002
"
~SGR Î^Tl'Rëpôit'TT.03. 2002 SGRY-1I Report, 31.12.2002
Work participation of STs - 63.67% Work participation of STs - 32.75%
SGRY-II Report, 31.03.2002 SGRY-II Report, 31. 12.2002 •
Work participation of SCs - 45. 10% Work participation of SCs - 19.96%
Work participation of Others - 7.73% Work participation of Others - 2.61%

The development programmes for the tribais are mainly based on wage employment and
house building and house repair loan, which take a recourse to status quo maintenance giving
only side payments to the down trodden in the game of power politics, power in the forms of
wealth and leverage. In this play of non-zero-sum game the down trodden tribais have had to
succumb to the pressure and pull of market economy and politico-economic leverage of non-
tribal and tribal haves and neo-haves. They receive dole-giving package and remain only as
labourers Their work participation is significant. On the average, here we can present the work
participation rate (WPR) in the district, ranks 14 in terms of WPR among districts (Census,
2001 ). A comparison with the state of West Bengal (Table No. 4) may be presented here.

Table 4 :

Comparison with West Bengal, 1991 and 2001

State/District Cultivators Agricultural Household Other workers

: /_%) labourers (%) industry (%)
West Bengal
'
1991 29.24 25.01 4.24 41.51
State/District Cultivators Agricultural Household Other workers
(%) labourers (%) industry (%)
2001 19,03 24.92 730 48.76
Burdwan
1991 21.83 31.20 3A6 43.81
2001 I 14.59 129.88 [ 4.84 | 50.68
Sources: Census ofIndia, 1991 and 2001

The work participation rate of total population in the fields of cultivation and agricultural
labour decreased by 10.21 and 0.09 percent, 7.24 and 1.32 per cent from 1991 to 2001 in the
state of West Bengal and the district of Burdwan, but itincreased by 3.06 and 7.25 per cent,
and 1.68 and 6.87 per cent in the fields of household industry and others. As the district ol
Burdwan is an agricultural district, hence work participation rate in household industry and
other fields increased less in percentage term than that of the state of West Bengal and the
same decreased less in the field of cultivation than that of the state. As per 1991 Census the
work participation rate inWest Bengal with a possible community break-up (Table No. 5) may
be presented here :

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1073

Table 5 : Work Participation Rate, 1991

Total SC I ST Total VŠČ I ST Total VŠČ VŠT
Population Male Male Male Female Female Female
32.19 I 33.31 I 47.66 1 51.40 52 03 54.05 11.25 13.22 41.03

Source: Census ofIndia, 1991.

Two important tendencies can be found from these figures. First, the total tribal work

participation rate in comparison to total work participation rate is greater than that of SC work
participation rate in comparison to total work participation rate, i.e. 15.47 per cont is much
greater than mere 1.12 per cent. The study area configures the similar trend. Second, the
tribal female participation rate of 41 .03 per cent is a significant distinguishing mark incomparison
11.25 per cent and SC female participation rate of 13.22 per
to total female participation rate of
cent. The male participation rate of 54.05 per cent is a slight improvement over total 51 .40 per
cent and SC 52.03 per cent. Number of persons usually employed per 1000 persons in West
Bengal is also a significant indicator of tribal work mobility.

absorption of tribal labour force agriculture continues to operate a significant

In the

development. There is a percentage decline in females usually employed. The demand for
male skilled labour is at the high level with the onset of industrialization and the demand for
the reserve army of labour comprising largely female labour is renewed with the expansion of

tertiary sector (Boserup, 1970 and Poulos, 1989). The transformation

of workforce suggests

that a region registers change in the structure of its workforce (Clark, 1957; Fisher, 1964 and

Gregory). It normally experiences a shift from primary to secondary and tertiary

functions.

Recent changes, for example urban development (Ram, 1979), industrial development
(Mukherjee) and immigration (Sinha, 1980) have affected the occupational structure. All tribal
groups may be grouped into following categories: increase in primary at the cost of tertiary,
increase in primary at the cost of secondary, increase in primary at the costs of both secondary
and tertiary, increase in secondary at the costs of both primary and tertiary, increase in
in secondary and tertiary at
tertiary at the costs of both primary and secondary and increase
the cost of primary. Itmay be mentioned here that proportion of male tribal workers in primary,
secondary and tertiary sectors has remained almost constant. There also has occurred only
a marginal and that too toward the primary sector at the cost of non-primary sectors. It
shift

may be due to the substantial increase in the growth of tribal labour force and low absorptive
capacity of labour force in the secondary and tertiary sectors. This indicates the deterioration
in the average employment situation and standard of living of the working tribal people. There

is loss in the proportion of cultivators, has been mostly gained by the category of agricultural
labourers, indicates the relative deterioration in the employment conditions of the tribais. The
and more
pressure of population upon agricultural land is increasing with the progress of time
and more population pressure on agricultural land is the reality of present daytime. The non-

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1074

agricultural functions are generally beyond the reach of the average tribal workers. However,
few tendencies can be pointed out inthis regard. First, the share of agricultural employment
falls as economic development proceeds. Second, the per capita real income is low, wherein
the percentage of total population engaged in primary production. Third, there is a general

tendency for tertiary functions to expand more rapidly than the secondary. Fourth, there is a
progressive fall in the proportions of workers in the primary sector has been invariably
accompanied by riseinproductivity. The efforts of development intribal areas are rounded up
with the approach toarea development, has failed to uplift the lot of the poor tribais creating an
artificial demarcation between the mass of the poor tribais, on the one hand and microscopic
and affluent tribais and non-tribals, on the other. Being uprooted from traditional
minority of elite

occupations like food gathering, fishing and hunting without any proper alternative, they are
divorced from their hold to local natural resources, different indigenous household industries
resultinginthe deterioration inthe quality of tribal employment. They are becoming landless
labourers more and more. As per 1991 census report only 1507 ST s were engaged in cultivation,
15186 as agricultural labourers in the study area. Only 137 and 310 tribal population were
engaged both insecondary and tertiary sectors. And in the primary sector 16720 tribal people
were involved. Therefore, 50.83 per cent in primary sector is greater than 0.94 per cent in
tertiary sector, which is greater than the secondary sector, i.e. 0.41 per cent. In order to
facilitate the analysis of differential growth of primary, secondary and tertiary sectors, an
index of relative absorption of labour by different sectors can be calculated as such :

Relative absorption of labour by tertiary sector - an index :

I = (T/S) X 100 = (0.94/0.41) X 100 = 229.26

I = (T/P) X 100 = (0.94/50.83) x 100 = 1.83

Relative absorption of labour by secondary sector - an index:

I = (S/T) X 100 = (0.41/0.94) x 100 = 43.61

I = (S/P) x 100 = (0.41/50.83) x 100 = 0.80

Relative absorption of labour by primary sector - an index:

I = (P/T) x 100 = (50.83/0.94) x100 = 5407.44
I = (P/S) x 100 = (50.83/0.41) x100 = 12397.56

Tertiary sector has increased at the cost of secondary, secondary at the cost of tertiary
and primary both at the costs of secondary at first and then tertiary.

About 46.17 per cent tribal people out of the total tribal population in this block are

agricultural labourers. These poor people do not earn any surplus above their normal subsistence
needs. The middle peasants may or may not earn a surplus. And ifthey earn the surplus and

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1075

employ the surplus to intensify cultivation or cultivating activities and expand their non-agricultural
pursuits of marketing or money lending of business, then their control over local resources
may go up at the cost of poor peasants and landless labourers. Itis the game of non-zero-sum
character, when and where the zest for land reform measures aiming at distributing some land
from the landlords to other groups does not follow up with further policies to help the poor
peasants and landless agricultural labourers and arrest a renewed process of concentration of
landholdings. There exits capitalistic relations between employers and employees in the

agricultural field. Also there persist pre-capitalist features of the rural scene, such as
subsistence farming and share-cropping pattern. The possible reasons for this unequal game
are one, as capitalists acquire control over more resources, they continue to utilize the older
type of exploitation as long as they can, so that the vestiges of pre-capitalist bondage continue
to exit and two, by improving whole masses of peasantry inregions on the margin of capitalist
development, capitalism compels these peasants to cling to subsistence farming V*with little
capital on impoverished land V*for survival. These marginal regions serve as labour reserves.
(Bagchi, 1982). Henceforth, they are marginalized section of the society. Due to this
marginalization the tribal households lead a poor life unless some help from governmental
agencies is available. The tribais cannot afford to lead a normal economic and social life. This
is the reason why the government is now granting loans to the poor. In this study area there is
no special programme for the tribais except TSP. And the future of TSP is not so promising.

Except TSP, the general loan programmes are also important inproviding loan facilities to the
tribais, for example IAV, SGRY-I, SGRY-II, NOAPS, NMBS etc. The tribal people are also
aware of the functioning and role of institutional credit agencies and they also understand that
the private money-lenders are charging exorbitant rates of interest. They are unable to discharge
the debt during their lifetime and they also understand that the bonded labour conditions are

created by the money-lenders due to non-payment of their loan (Field Survey). They are also
aware of their constitutional rights. But this awareness does not reach totally at the grassroots
level. And the incidence of non-repayment of loan is also prevalent among the tribes in TSP
cases. Non-recovery loans is a menace (Field Survey and Manager, Bardhaman
of bank

Gramin Bank, Chakdighi). The government agencies have helped in uplifting the tribais to a
level, which has enabled them to raise their standard of living, which is on par with people living
in the non-scheduled areas.

The individual beneficiaries under schemes like SGRY and IAY were minimum. And
what was important is wage employment. Out of total, tribal benefits of 118.46% to 16.67% +
was taken into granted. Besides this wage employment, i.e. the creation of mandays, mere
housing loan and old age pension did not make them self-sufficient. Among them agriculture

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1076
is the main occupation and inheritance is followed in case of property ownership, distributed
among their sons. Unemployment problem in the society is mainly of seasonal in character.
The strategy of increase in wage employment and the provision of providing house building
and house repair loans and also mere old age pension has neglected the entrepreneurial
aspect and self-sustained development efforts on the part of the tribais. Therefore, the strategy
of development has neglected the poor and the problems of the poor have not been dealt with

properly by the planners and administrators. The programmes like SGRY, IAY, NOAPS,
NBMS and TSP devised to help the poor did not seek major changes in the socio-economic
structure and hence, these were incremental. There is also the lack of political will to help the

poor. The tribal people who have economic leverage and who are above poverty line or who
have economic strength to buy goods and services, have their needs different from the needs
of the majority in society or the needs of the poor. 'Just as the set of needs will vary from one
society to another, itcan vary in the same society as its standard of living changes.' (Roach
and Roach, 1972: 24). These poor people are relatively deprived. Relative deprivation leads to
powerlessness, which is the necessary pre-condition for violent civil conduct (Coser, 1968).
The severer relative deprivation, the greater is the likelihood of civil violence (Dubey, 1969).
And the development programmes are intended to mitigate the feelings of relative deprivation
and to lessen the risk of violent upsurge. In fact, the programmes were vast and all-inclusive
and touched all aspects of the people. 'Most people have cots to sleep on and a few
life of the

now like to have pulses and vegetables in their daily food. Their dress has been changed and
their speech shows marks of urbanity. They have developed a strong liking for earning money

and would not do anything now for anybody without payment. There is no appreciable change
in the standard of living of the people. Instead of depending on self-help and developing initiative,

people are more inclined to look for Government support inall their activities.' (Sachchidananda,
1964: 118). The tribal people are handicapped. Their entrepreneurial initiative is dead. They
are too much depended on Government help and less interested in the role of voluntary
organizations. Waghmare's formulation V*all the have favourable attitude towards voluntary
organizations is not applicable in the study area of this district. In his study majority of the
respondents, i.e. 69.6 per cent have favourable attitude towards voluntary organizations. 27.20
per cent and 2.70 per cent of the respondents are of undecided attitude and unfavourable
attitude towards voluntary organizations respectively (Waghmare and others, 1988). Tribal

people in the study area are too much dependent on Government help in comparison to their
dependence on voluntary organizations. During survey I found that majority of the respondents
took Government help and institutional assistance as the way to growth and development.
Panchayats in the rural scenario play an important role in this area (Table No. 6).

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1077

Table 6:
Forms of Help and Assistance to Tribal People
Parameters Governmental assistance No help Voluntary organization
1. What type of help 100% Nil Nil
you have got? ' I _
Parameters Governmental Cannot May be Voluntary
assistance sa£ organization
2. Do you think 65.78% 5.67% 19.25% 9.30%
voluntary organization
would provide much
benefit than the
Government?
3. Do you think panchayats play important 69.86% 12.46% .17.68%
role in providing help and assistance to the
poor ;
Source: Field Survey

This is evident from survey results. 'In all the villages (in 1977) the allocation of loans
and inputs from block level agencies favoured the economically and politically strong and their
clients.... These patron-clients relations clearly served to reproduce the structure of agrarian
relations and the underlying structures of exploitation. ... The structural changes (in 1987-88)

openly benefited the weak at the expense of the strong. The change might be marginal in
economic terms but that did not detract from challenging the status
its political significance in

quo The current decentralization of development planning under Panchayati Raj is a crucial
step in this process. On the one hand itseeks to create institutions based upon popular

participation inwhich those previously excluded or marginalized can now arrest their interests,
panchayats' principal function is the management of development
but on the other hand the

programmes funded from above, whose overall nature is determined at the state or all- India
level, and in which the panchayats' role as initiators is limited to the proposai of specific works
to which they attach priority within the framework of these programmes.' (Webster, 1990: 186,
199, 2Ó6). However, the tribais are long away behind the non-tribals in socio-economic
conditions, is not surprising. What is, however, surprising is the fact that they are less exposed
to development programmes. Also, their participation in development programmes is relatively
low. So is the case with their perception of the impact of these programmes (Field
Survey).
They also lack entrepreneurial initiative. Entrepreneurship development is meaningful, viable
and productive way of utilizing the material and human resources. This development among
the rural tribal population is the imperative need on the part of the countries embarking on
small industry development programmes. The first phase in the process relates to the basic
physico-psycho, socio-cultural and economic study and understanding of the area
where the

programme is to be implemented. The second phase consists of training of various categories

of personnel involved indeveloping entrepreneurship. The entire success of small enterprise

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1078

promotion in rural-tribal communities hinges on marketing the products of the neo-

entrepreneurs. In the initial stage and also insome cases on a sustained basis the promotional

agencies should help inmarketing the products. The new and emerging entrepreneurs may be
too weak to organize the marketing of their products on their own. The promotional agencies
may go in for internal or external export of the indigenous handicrafts and products through a
network of marketing channels. Such a support would sustain the on-going entrepreneurs. In

this respect Panchayats have important role to play. Mere management of development

programmes would not make tribal development a sustainable one with fair and equitable
distribution of income, power and opportunities following an ecologically sound and acceptable

production system for both 'growth and development' (Gupta, 1997: 43).

Without having no entrepreneurial achievement, mere loan facility and pension scheme
did not make any real progress or actual achievement with regard to build a two-way
communication between the tribal communities and their neighbours inthe overall framework
of national integration and bring them into the national mainstream, to protect the resource
base and cultural apparatus of the tribal population for meeting modern challenges, to initiate
measures for meeting the minimum needs of the tribal people (Gopalkrishanan, 1986). The
income distribution has been far from just or equitable and itis estimated that the lowest 40
per cent of the oopulation gets 17 per cent of the gross domestic product, the middle 40 per
cent gets 33 per cent, and the top 20 per cent gets 50 per cent (Dube, 1987 and Seetharam,
1986). This all-India trend can also be applicable inthe study area, where agriculture remains
the prime source of income of the tribal people. There are the needs for learning from below,
assurance to participation and follow-up action of programmes. The single stroke formula of
providing loans and facilities is unsuited to the development needs of the area. The figurative
approach is like this.

I Help 1 Development C
► ►
N U
l_ielp 2 Programmatic loans and Output
p i facilities T

^ Help 3 P
► I ; I
I
T U

T
1 Information and feedback I

Information and feedback

Fig. 2

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1079

The institutions of Panchayat would provide sufficient information to this end. Mention
here may be made that the function of Panchayats is deficient in this respect. The local
bodies lack institutional and technical capacity. There is no clear delineation between the
executive and legislative functions. The concept [Link]'s participation in governance is not
clearly stipulated.' (Osmani, [Link] The
importance of Gram Sansad can be located inthe follow-up action, linking the people to the
higher level of government. "... the gram sansads could be used to build accountability of
higher-level panchayat bodies and raise awareness of block level actions and programmes:
GS meetings to be attended by a competent Block-level official, (2) closer monitoring of
(1 ) all
GS meetings by Block and District level officials, (3) participation of ZP and PS representatives
in GS meetings to be enhanced, and (4) discussion in GS of all developmental work to be
undertaken by PS and ZP within the gram sansad's area to be compulsory.' (Rene Veron and
others, 2001: 26). The tribal development plans and programmes in this study area do not
follow the necessary pre-requisites like the assessment and development of natural resources
in ruralareas, identification of the imperative needs of the tribais, development of infrastructure,
promotion and strengthening of leadership arising from the tribais and reorientation of the
outlook of the existing rural elites, regulation and redistribution of private property rights in
land, proper control and regulation of the use of public domain, and development of viable
technology, which will be accessible to the weaker sections and would promote modernization
and productivit/ of their occupations and not just for their survival. For accelerating rural
development programmes it is necessary to involve and activate local institutions. The
introduction of Panchayati Raj institutions has enabled power to be decentralized. Planning
from below is meant for decisions taken by the local level village leaders. Panchayati Raj
institutions have helped increating awareness among the rural masses and motivating them
about their rights and duties inthe matter of developmental priorities, functions and processes.
However, there are some ills inthe Panchayati Raj system. In this context, itis essential to
is a total
lay stress on the role of voluntary agencies inrural development. Rural development
national effort, of all agencies, governmental, industrial, banks and voluntary agencies should
be partners indevelopment. All agencies should accept the new concept of rural development
with focus on people and reaching the poorest of the poor, so that people's perceptions of their
own problems and their own priorities are given due recognition.

House repair loan and house repair loan in installments can be traced as
to widows
no
positive attitude of Gram Panchayats inmanaging the development programmes. Having
socio-economic security after her husband's death the widow becomes helpless, sometimes
her sons, who are married decline their mother-son relation, stop all financial support to
mother, then old age pension and house loan facility throw some or few hopes on the way of
family after the deterioration of joint family system is
the root
living. Emergence of nuclear
cause behind this. At this point the widow mother is not an economic asset to them. Destruction
of community feeling and theemergence of individualism and consumerism among the tribal
people have made them too much self-centered. Therefore, help to the widows is a positive
approach. Housing loan in installments is also a positive approach on the ground that they

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1080

expend most of the loan money for consumption due to poor economy. They are indebted
both to institutional and non-institutional sources. Not only poor economy, but also huge
consumption thirst has made them handicapped. They become unable to repay loan. The
incidence of indebtedness to private moneylenders has to be tackled not only through
institutional credit facility, but through multi-pronged strategy of integrated development so
that an equitable distribution of income, promotion of justice and efficient production, substantial
improvement in the levels of employment, education, health, nutrition, housing and social and
cultural well-being can be made. Poor economy and huge consumptive thirst should have to
be matched with qualitative and structural changes. However, the focus of development should
be on preservation of ecological integrity with a view to providing life-supporting resources
continuously, efficient and appropriate land use, prevention of fragmentation of land holdings,
healthy living conditions, ecologically convenient environment, effective social, economic and
governmental institutions, improved human welfare and comprehensive planning and programme
formulation (Lassey, 1977). The problem is a complex amalgam of several factors like policy,
approach, co-ordination, strategy, planning, constitutional safeguards, protective regulations,
quality of personnel, attitudes, ecological harmony, and macro and micro level understanding
of issues and possible remedies. Itis realized that the key to accelerated development is the

quality of development administration which is as much a scarce resource as other economic

inputs. Thus, institutions governing tribal development with special reference to those controlled
by the government should be seen as critical inputs for effective administration of rural
development programmes intribal areas.

Tribal development in Jamalpur block of Burdwan district can be realized from 1991

Census report, where 50.83 per cent tribal people are engaged inprimary sector, 46.17 per
cent are agricultural labourers, 0.26 per cent are in manufacturing and processing other than
household industry, 0.15 per cent are intrade and commerce, 0.25 per cent are inservices
other than transport, storage and communication. Out of 16.52 per cent literate to the total
tribal population only 3.56 per cent females are literate in comparison to district figures of
20.58 per cent and 5.76 per cent. In terms of literacy the block figure ranks low than the
district. On average five family members per household and 2.5 children per household or

family V*this factual data is an important indicator Of tribal development. The block is mainly
agricultural. The tribais themselves are not so conscious or aware to develop their own as per
the requirements of integration with national mainstream.

The block includes 22. 11 per cent tribais living below poverty line in comparison to total
families below poverty line. Out of the total tribais living in this area about 33.52 per cent tribais
are below poverty line vis-à-vis 20.88 percent BPL figure of the total population of this block.
Previous figure of the total population below poverty line was 33.22 per cent. Naturally, itis an
improvement over the past. Agriculturally the block is improved. Total population in this area
depends on agriculture. So, there is continually rising pressure of population on agriculture,
has produced few consequences like majority of landholdings are small, getting smaller and
smaller. The process of sub-division and fragmentation is encouraged by continuous pressure

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1081

of population on agriculture. And the small holding may prove to be an uneconomic holding
with all other limitations like poor quality of soil, absence of improved technique, absence of
the use of better seeds and chemical The irrigation system in this block is not
fertilizers.

negligible. The tribais who hold lands, cultivate the lands are economically far better than the
non-irrigated areas. Itis the fact that marginal propensity to save is more in irrigated system
and less in non-irrigated system, thus wit!-- the increase in income savings have increased.
The irrigated system has increased production in agriculture and thereby also the savings.
There is an increasing trend towards the consumption pattern among the tribais. Those tribais
who do not hold any piece of land for cultivation or hold a very small piece for cultivation and
depend mainly on working in agricultural fields as agricultural labourers, save nothing. But the
consumption thirst does not decrease. Consequently, poverty accompanies with their daily
life. Factually,

Savings = Income - Consumption. And, hypothetical^,

If,I = Rs. 1,500, C = Rs. 1,371.75, then S = Rs. 128.25 per month
If,I = Rs. 3,000, C = Rs. 1,371.75, then S = Rs. 1,628.25 per month
If,I = Rs. 1,200, C = Rs. 1,371.75, then S = Rs. nil per month, debt = Rs. 171.75
If,I = Rs. 1,371 .75, C = Rs. 1,371 .75, then S = Rs. nil

Theoretically, consumption along with investment determines the level of income and
employment in the economy. Changes in the propensity of the people to consume will bring
about changes in income and employment. There are few objective factors influencing the
consumption pattern. These are income level, extent of wealth and liabilities, past income in
the form of savings, expectations for future income in the forms of employment generation,
wage increase etc., past experiences, changes inthe price level, fiscal policy of the government
etc. Not only that. There are also subjective factors, which also influence the consumption
pattern, such as consumers' taste, aptitude to accumulate wealth, preference for better living
etc. Despite low-income generation their propensity to consume more has been increased
with the passage of time rather than savings and investment.
Itis to be noted that the sustainable development of the tribais depends on a system of
self-development based on their own creative force and corporate productive resources. The
plan for tribal development must take forest and land resources as base. The study area is not
covered by forest. The prime resource base is land. Land remains the main source of their
income. Here, there is direct participation of the tribais whether they are bargadars, pattadars
or agricultural labourers. Very few of the tribes in this block are owner cultivators. Majority of
the pattadars is from SC categories in comparison to STs and others. Though the SC
beneficiaries form majority innumber, but interms of acres per beneficiary ST beneficiaries
rank higher than SCs in the category of patta land and in the category of barga operation the
others get more than that of ST s and SCs. Secondly, pattadars are mostly illiterate and in the
grind wheels of poverty. They are [Link] average, the ST beneficiary received 0.94 acres
of patta land. Besides the bastu patta land, those who have got agricultural patta lands have
slightly improved their economy. They are agricultural labourers working at
the wage rate of

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The Indian Journal of Political Science 1082
Rs. 50 to 55 per day. When they need money for ceremonial or consumption purposes they
go to private moneylenders or mahajans and draw credit at the rate of interest ofRs 10 to 12
per month. This incidence of indebtedness does seriously harm their economic strength.
Another incidence occurs. Itis found that these tribal poor go to their employers or manibs for
financial credit on account of repayment of loan during rainy and winter seasons without any
interest. This is a positive sign. The barga beneficiary, on an average, got 0.98 acres of
agricultural land and they had to operate barga cultivation on the basis of 75:25 crop-sharing
generally and 60:40 occasionally. Mention here may be made that those bargadars or share-
croppers and pattadars or vested land holders own more than 2-3 acres of agricultural lands,
are economically sound. Few of them buy lands for cultivation. The savings and investment
motives among them have made them more oriented towards further economic development.
The conditions of these bargadars are much more improved than the mere pattaholders.
Except institutional assistance, they need not credit from private sources. Thirdly, poor
pattaholders and bargadars are members of Krishak Sangathan and they attain meetings of
Gram Sansad. Many of the members say that we do not take decisions. We follow our
leaders and their decisions. Fourthly, distribution of small piece of land to the poor and
fragmentation of land are not conducive to production improvement, efficiency and economy.
Few amount of money in hands has increased the consumption of luxury goods among them.
Party leaders and panchayat members are in favour of distribution of land in more hands on
head count basis and administration is subservient to the interests of the party leaders and
liable to party dictates. Fifthly, programmes like land distribution among them, recording the
names of the bargadars, resettlement of landless agricultural labourers providing house sites
and housing loans, extension of employment, generation of self-employment have had little
impact on their pressing problems and urgent needs. No individual programme from sectoral
angle can heal the ulcer, rather an integrated approach to economy and efficiency should have
to be enunciated and expedited with possible effective co-ordination between various
programmes. This area is prospective for development. Agriculture is the prime source of
income. Infrastructural development is at the low ebb and taking gradually. Technology
transformation is low. Tribais are being dissociated from the control over resources and from
the decision making process. Their electoral turn-out is high, but political participation in the
decision making is low. Resource utilization pattern is not so low. People from neighbouring
districts like Bankura, Birbhum and Midnapore come for work in this block during the busy
seasons of paddy sowing, harvesting and potato plantation. In this development process the
tribais should play the role of an actor as co-sharers in the creation of wealth and take active
part inits management. To ensure man-nature-society symbiotic relationship without generating
conflicts between them emphasis should be laid on maximization of creative participation and
minimization of socio-economic disorder. The poor tribais are too weak to stand as equal
against the non tribais. They have to be properly organized, politicized and mobilized imparting
a sense of participation among them in view of productive resources, productive relations,
manpower position and socio-economic orientation. In fact, development centres round a high
rate of economic growth with social justice, priority investment, political decentralization and

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Development Programmes involving the Tribes 1083

moulding of tradition with modernization. Popular participation should be treated as the basic
policy in national development and as a basic policy measure active participation of all individuals
in the development process is a sine qua non for development. Participation provides the
beneficiaries of development programmes an opportunity for opinion building, helps the planners
in setting formulating policies, implementing plans and programmes,
goals and objectives,
organizing and evaluating the target community, the less privileged few. The problems of the
tribais, the rural down-trodden are germinated from structural conditions and not functional in
a real sense. Participation makes the people aware of their problems and root causes behind
these problems.
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