Classification of measuring instruments:

#Broadly instruments may be classified according to the quantity they measure. For example an
instrument meant for measurement of current is classified as an ammeter while an instrument
that measures voltage is classified as an altimeter. In addition to our instruments we have
wattmeter,power factor meter,frequency metres etc

#Electrical instruments may also be classified according to the kind of current that can be
measured by them : direct current ,alternating current, both direct and alternating current
instruments; these instruments are appropriately called universal instruments.

#the instruments can further be classified as

(A) indicating instruments are those instruments which indicate the magnitude of the
quantity being measured; they generally make use of a dial and a pointer for this purpose;
ordinary voltmeter and ammeter and wattmeters belong to this category.
The analogue in indicating instruments may be divided into two groups
1. Electromechanical instruments 2. Electronic instruments
(B) Recording instruments gives us a continuous record of the quantity being measured over a
specified period. The variations of the quantity being measured are recorded by a pen on a
sheet of paper fixed or moving.
(C) Integrating type instruments totalize events over a specified period of time. The
summation which they give is the product of time and an electrical quantity. For example
energy meter.

# The instruments may also be classified on the basis of the method used for comparing the
unknown quantity with the unit of measurement. The two categories of instruments based
upon this classification are
1. Direct measuring instruments for example ammeters voltmeters wattmeter’s and energy
meters [Link] instruments for example DC and ac bridges. Comparison type
instruments are used in cases where a higher accuracy of measurement is required.
(a)Deflecting force
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero position. To
deflect the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known as deflecting
force. A system which produces deflecting force is known as a deflecting system. Generally a
deflecting system converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force.

Fig :The Action of Deflecting Torque

(b)Controlling force:
The force is required in an indicating instrument in order that the current produces the
deflection of the pointer proportional to its magnitude. The system producing a controlling
force is called a controlling system the functions of the controlling system are
1) To produce a force equal and opposite to the deflection force at its final study position of the
pointer in order to make the deflection of the point a definite for a particular magnitude of the
current.
2) To bring the moving system back the force causing the instrument moving system to deflect
is removed. In the absence of the controlling system the pointer will not come back to zero
when the current is removed controlling force is usually provided by springs.

(1)Spring Control: A hair spring is attached to the moving system exerts a controlling torque.
This is the most common method of providing the controlling torque in electrical Instruments.

The spiral hair spring made of non- magnetic like “phosphor bronze” is attached to the system
.When the pointer deflects the spring is twisted in opposite direction and provides the required
controlled torque.

In order to eliminate the effect of the temperature variations upon the length of the spring, two
springs are coiled in opposite directions. When the moving system deflects one spring is
extended while the other spring is compressed.

To give the controlling torque proportional to angle of deflection of the moving system the
number of turns on the spring should be fairly large so that the deflection per unit is small.
Pivot
Scale
Pointer
Control
Springs Balance weight

Jewel bearings

For flat spiral spring the controlling torque developed by the deflection is

𝐸𝑏𝑡 3
𝑇𝑐 = 𝜃 N-m
12𝑙

Where
E=young’s modulus of the spring Material in N/m 2

b=Width of the spring in meters

t=thickness of the spring in meters

l=length of the spring in meters

θ=angular deflection(radians )

𝐸𝑏𝑡 3
∴ 𝐸, 𝑏, 𝑡, 𝑙 are the constants for a particular spring 𝑇𝑐 = 𝑘𝜃 where K= (spring constant )
12𝑙

The stress in the spring must be well below the elastic limit of the spring even at minimum
deflection such that there is no permanent set on inelastic yield .
6𝑇
Maximum fibre stress 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑡 2𝑐 𝑁/𝑚2

Substituting Tc equation in the above equation.

6 𝐸𝑏𝑡 3
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2( ) 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑏𝑡 12𝑙
𝑙 𝐸 𝜃
⇒𝑡 = 𝑓
𝑚𝑎𝑥 2

Eg:For phosphor bronze ,the maximum allowable stress 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 30 𝑁/𝑚2 and E=120 GN/𝑚2

𝑙 120∗109 𝜃
⇒𝑡 = = 2000𝜃
30∗106 2

𝜋
∴ 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝜃 =
2
𝑙
= 3140
𝑡

Hence in order that the material is not over stressed the ratio of length to thickness of the
spring strip should not be much less than 3000.

Advantages:

1. For instruments whose deflecting torque is uniform it provides uniform scale.

2. Practically there is no increase in weight of moving system and hence need very less
deflecting torque.

Disadvantages:
1. Spring tension may change with time

2. Change of temperature affects the spring length

[Link] control :A small control weight(W) is attached to the moving system whose position
can be adjusted. In zero position the control weight hangs vertically down wards and hence
control torque is zero. When the pointer is moved from zero position (left to right) the weight
moves from vertical position. Due to the gravity pointer will try to come back to its stable
(vertical) position & thus provides the controlling torque .Suppose the system deflects through
an angle θ as shown in figure the weight acts at a distance ‘l’ from center,the component of
weight that is trying to restore the pointer back to zero position is w sin θ

𝑇𝑐 = 𝑤𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑘𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Where kg=wl= constant

At the final deflection position 𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑑

𝑘𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑇𝑑

𝑇𝑑
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( )
𝑘𝑔

Therefore gravity control instruments has non uniform

scale.

Advantages:

1. Cheaper than spring control

2. Unaffected by temperature variations

3. Non-subjected to fatigue.

4. The controlling torque can be easily changed by adjusting the position (l)

Disadvantges:

[Link] instruments has to be used in vertical position only.

[Link] weight of moving syste, is more due the weight(w)

[Link]-uniform scale.
(c)Damping Torque : Due to inertia of moving system the pointer will oscillate around its final
deflecting position before coming to rest.
*This makes difficult to obtain quick & accurate readings
*Damping torque should act only when pointer is in motion and always oppose the motion.
Damping torque can be produced by
(i) Air friction damping:
*Light aluminum piton is attached to the moving system and moves in a air chamber closed at
one end.
*Clearance between piton and sides of the chamber must be small & uniform.
*When the piston is moving into the chamber, pressure is increased and hence opposes the
motion.
*When piston is moved out, vacuum is created and oppose the motion.

*Vane is mounted on the spindle of moving system and

moves in a closed sector shaped box.
*Chamber is made of Bakelite or die-casting.

(ii) Fluid Friction Damping: A Light vane attached to the spindle of moving system is
dipped in oil and completely submerged in oil. When moving system is moved
,vane moves in oil ,viscosity of oil opposes the movement of vane .Fluid friction
damping is not suitable for portable instruments due to oil contained in the
instrument.
(iii)Eddy current damping:

There are two types

(1) Metal disc type: Aluminum disc attached to

the moving system is allowed to pass
between the poles of damping magnet.
When disc moves, it cuts the flux and hence
eddy currents are induced in the disc which
opposes the motion.

(2) Metal former damping: When metal former is moved, eddy currents are induced in the
former due to magnetic field and produce the damping torque.