1: Public Vs.

Private IP's
Public IP outside the local network communication k liye use hota hai on
the other hand private within the local network. Private free while public
costs.
Private internal addresses are not routed on the Internet and no traffic cannot
be sent to them from the Internet, they only supposed to work within the local
network. it is public global addresses that are used in the Internet. A public
IP address is an IP address that is used to access the Internet. Public (global)
IP addresses are routed on the Internet, unlike private addresses

2: Loopback adress of ipv 4 and 6

An address that sends outgoing signals back to the same computer for
testing. In a TCP/IP network, the loopback IP address is [Link], and
pinging this address will always return a reply unless the firewall prevents it.
The loopback address allows a network administrator to treat the local
machine as if it were a remote machine

Ipv 4 [Link]
Ipv 6 [Link].0.0.1 or ::1

3: Subnetting and how use?

IP Subnetting is a process of dividing a large IP network in smaller IP
networks. In Subnetting we create multiple small manageable networks
from a single large IP network.
Divide network into subnetwork to avoid loss of IPs
Creating a logical sub network by borrowing hosts bits to Network side is
known as Subnetting
4: What are Dual Stack Routers?
To accommodate ipv4 and ipv6
With the dual stack solution, every networking device, server, switch, router
and firewall in an ISP's network will be configured with both IPv4 and IPv6
connectivity capabilities. Most importantly, dual stack technology allows ISPs
to process IPv4 and IPv6 data traffic simultaneously. In dual stack router, A
router’s interface is attached with IPv4 and IPv6 addresses configured is
used in order to transition from IPv4 to IPv6.

5: What is the other way to use transition from ipv4 to ipv6?

1:Tunneling
2: NAT Protocol Translation

6: Subnet of classes
Subnet of class A [Link]
B [Link]
C [Link]

7: What is classless addressing?

No classes
Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR)
Ip address is divided into block id and host id

8: Dedicated private Ips ki range

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
9: Purpose of classless ip?
Provide same number of ips to an organization as it wants to possible
extent
Budgeting the IP's (networks and hosts) as per users' needs

10: How many bits keep to 1 (class wise)

Class A 7
B 15
C 23

11: First IP last Ip for?

First ip: network address
Last direct broadcast address

12: Can same range of private ip addresses be used in more than one
internal network?
They can be used, because all are standalone

13: Broadcast IP of Class A

It will be [Link]

14: Fixed bits of all classes?

Kuch bits fix hoti hain.. leading bits..
A class mai 0,
B mai 10,
C mai110,
D mai 1110,
E mai 1111
15: IPsec?
Internet protocol security. ip security protocol, provides secure
encrypted communication between two computers on an internet
IPsec is a group of protocols that are used together to set up encrypted
connections between devices. It helps keep data sent over public networks
secure. IPsec is often used to set up VPNs, and it works by encrypting IP
packets, along with authenticating the source where the packets come from.
Within the term "IPsec," "IP" stands for "Internet Protocol" and "sec" for
"secure." The Internet Protocol is the main routing protocol used on the
Internet; it designates where data will go using IP addresses. IPsec is secure
because it adds encryption* and authentication to this process.

16: CRC vs Checksum

CRC used in LAN and WAN and crc work on data link layer whereas
checksum work on transport layer

17: Even parity vs Odd parity

Even parity mean the codes words contain even no of 1's
Odd parity mean codes word contain odd no of 1's
Both use for single bit error detection

18: Block vs line encoding

Line : digital data to digital signal
Block: m bits subtituted with n bits - mB/nB

19: Manchester vs differential Manchester encoding

Two patterns are used Thomas and IEEE
synchronous clock encoding technique used by the physical layer of the
Open System Interconnection [OSI] to encode the clock and data of a
synchronous bit stream.
20: What is SLIP
Serial Line Internet Protocol is an encapsulation of IP designed to work
over serial ports
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) is a simple protocol that works with
TCP/IP for communication over serial ports and routers. They provide
communications between machines that were previously configured for
direct communication with each other.

21: How a local networks become able to connect to the external

network?
Gateway Protocol

22: How can we detect burst error in networks?

Using crc
hamming distance
Hamming distance is a metric for comparing two binary data strings. While
comparing two binary strings of equal length, Hamming distance is the
number of bit positions in which the two bits are different. The Hamming
distance between two strings, a and b is denoted as d(a,b). It is used for error
detection or error correction when data is transmitted over computer
networks. It is also using in coding theory for comparing equal length data
words.

23: VLAN v subnetting

VLAN mai hum LAN k andr logical distributions krte hain... Like ek hi
Switch A mai jo ek hi lab mai Computers k sth connectec port number 1 se
10 tk pc VLAN A or 11 se 20 VLAN B se belong krte’

VLAN's allow a network manager to logically segment a LAN into different

broadcast domains. Since this is a logical segmentation and not a physical
one, workstations do not have to be physically located together. Users on
different floors of the same building, or even in different buildings can now
belong to the same LAN
24: Telnet vs FTP
Telnet (port 23) use for remote access File transport protocol (Port 21) use
to transfer files

25: Anycast?
We dilver the msg to any first host to received in the communication
channel
Or
Anycast is a netowkr adressing methodology in which a single destination
address has multiple paths to two or more endpoint destinations.
In anycast, a collection of servers share the same IP address and send data
from a source computer to the server that is topographically the closest

26:Unicast
only 1
Multicast not 1 but some, but all
Broadcast all
Anycast any first in the way

27: Hub
Broadcast
Hub is a networking devices which is used to transmit the signal to each
port (except one port) to respond from which the signal was received. Hub
is operated on Physical layer. In this packet filtering is not available. It is of
two types: Active Hub, Passive Hub.

28: Switch
Unicast
Switch is a network device which is used to enable the connection
establishment and connection termination on the basis of need. Switch is
operated on Data link layer. In this packet filtering is available. It is type of
full duplex transmission mode and it is also called efficient bridge.
29: Distance vector vs link state routing
Distance Vector
Less bandwidth req
Small Packets
Less traffic
Based on local knowledge
Bellman Ford Algo
Count to infinity Problem
RIP and IGRP

Link State Routing

More bandwidth req
large packets
More traffic
Based on global knowledge
Dijikstra Algo
OSPF and ISIS

30: LLC vs MAC

LLC gives flow control while MAC provides error control, media access,
framing, and physical addressing
The Media Access Control sub-layer second responsibility is to control
access to the media. This sub-layer is also responsible for the placement of
frames on the media and the removal of frames from the media. The MAC
sub-layer communicates directly with the physical layer.
The upper sublayer of the data link layer is known as LLC sublayer. It
communicates with upper layers of the OSI model. It gets the network
protocol data, which is usually an IPv4 packet. LLC sublayer also adds
control information to help deliver the packet to the destination. The LLC
sublayer communicates with the upper layers of the application and
transition the packet to the lower layers for delivery. LLC is implemented in
software, and its implementation is independent of the hardware. The driver
software of computer NIC and be considered as LLC. The driver is a software
program and instruction that interacts directly with the computer NIC and
other hardware. Driver software also enables the communication between
the network device, computer, and operating system as well as with other
network computers and network devices.

31: Data Gram Switching vs. Virtual Circuit Switching?

A virtual circuit network uses a fixed path for a particular session,
after which it breaks the connection and another path has to be set up
for the next the next session. A Datagram based network is a true
packet switched network. There is no fixed path for transmitting data

Virtual Circuits:
1. It is connection-oriented, meaning that there is a reservation of
resources like buffers, CPU, bandwidth, etc. for the time in which the
newly setup VC is going to be used by a data transfer session.
2. The first sent packet reserves resources at each server along the path.
Subsequent packets will follow the same path as the first sent packet
for the connection time.
3. Since all the packets are going to follow the same path, a global header
is required. Only the first packet of the connection requires a global
header, the remaining packets generally don’t require global headers.
4. Since all packets follow a specific path, packets are received in-order
at the destination.
5. Virtual Circuit Switching ensures that all packets successfully reach the
Destination. No packet will be discarded due to unavailability of
resources.
6. From the above points, it can be concluded that Virtual Circuits are a
highly reliable method of data transfer.
7. The issue with virtual circuits is that each time a new connection is set
up, resources and extra information have to be reserved at every router
along the path, which becomes problematic if many clients are trying
to reserve a routers resources simultaneously.
 8. It is used by the ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Network,
specifically for Telephone calls.

Datagram Networks :
1. It is a connection-less service. There is no need for reservation of
resources as there is no dedicated path for a connection session.
2. All packets are free to use any available path. As a result intermediate
routers calculate routes on the go due to dynamically changing routing
tables on routers.
3. Since every packet is free to choose any path, all packets must be
associated with a header with proper information about the source and
the upper layer data.
4. The connection-less property makes data packets reach the
destination in any order, which means that they can potentially be
received out of order at the receivers end.
5. Datagram networks are not as reliable as Virtual Circuits.
6. The major drawback of Datagram Packet switching is that a packet can
only be forwarded if resources such as the buffer,CPU and bandwidth
are available. Otherwise, the packet will be discarded.
7. But it is always easy and cost-efficient to implement datagram
networks as there is no extra headache of reserving resources and
making a dedicated each time an application has to communicate.
8. Its is generally used by the IP network, which is used for Data services
like Internet

32: Message switching

Buffering the whole msg until receiver is available
Message switching is a network switching technique in which data is routed
in its entirety from the source node to the destination node, one hope at a
time. During message routing, every intermediate switch in the network
stores the whole message. If the entire network's resources are engaged or
the network becomes blocked, the message-switched network stores and
delays the message until ample resources become available for effective
transmission of the message
33: ICMP and IGMP
Internet control message protocol use for unicasting
Internet group message protocol use for multicasting

ICMP stands for Internet Control While IGMP stands for Internet

1. Message Protocol. Group Message Protocol.

2. ICMP has PING features. While it has the Multicast feature.

Internet control message protocol is While internet group message

3. unicasting. protocol is multicasting.

ICMP can be operate between host to

host or host to router or router to While IGMP can be used between

4. router. client to multicast router.

IGMP is also a network layer or

5. ICMP is a layer3 protocol. layer3 protocol.

It controls the unicast communication It controls the multicast

6. and used for reporting error. communication.

ICMP could be a mechanism

employed by hosts and gateway to While IGMP is employed to facilitate

send notification of datagram the synchronal transmission of a

7. downside back to sender. message to a bunch of recipients.

ICMP is used to test reachability to a While IGMP is used in group packet

8. host or network. transmission like DTS service.

34: Proxy firewall and packet filtering
Proxy firewall work on application layer and packet filtering work on
network layer
A packet filter examines each packet's IP header to control the network traffic
into and out of your network. It is the most basic feature of a firewall. If the
packet header information is valid, then the firewall allows the packet. If the
packet header information is not valid, the firewall drops the packet.
A proxy uses the same procedure to examine the packet header information
as a packet filter, but it also examines the packet content. If the content does
not match the criteria you set in your rules, the proxy takes action, such as
denying the packet or stripping the content from the packet. A proxy operates
at the application layer, as well as the network and transport layers of a
TCP/IP packet, while a packet filter operates only at the network and
transport protocol layer.
A proxy firewall is a network security system that protects network resources
by filtering messages at the application layer. A proxy firewall may also be
called an application firewall or gateway firewall.

35: Boradband vs Base band

Single data signal vs multiple’
Baseband technology transmits a single data signal/stream/channel at a time
while broadband technology transmits multiple data
signals/streams/channels simultaneously at the same time.

36: Single data signal vs multiple

Both are used for conversion of of binary format to signal format
But for 1 and 0 both have different patterns to represent
38: VPN
Creating a private network for a public internet, virtual private network

A virtual private network, or VPN, is an encrypted connection over the

Internet from a device to a network. The encrypted connection helps
ensure that sensitive data is safely transmitted. It prevents unauthorized
people from eavesdropping on the traffic and allows the user to conduct
work remotely.

37: packer filtering

Packet Filtering mai hum bht sare aspects dekh skte hain..based on what
is in the header.. koi source block kr dyn, koi destination block kr
dyn..koi port hi block kr dyn..ya poora ka poora network hi block kr dyn

39: Tuneling
Source and destination are of same time but network is of different
Connecting them
Tunneling is a protocol that allows for the secure movement of data from one
network to another. Tunneling involves allowing private network
communications to be sent across a public network, such as the Internet,
through a process called encapsulation. The encapsulation process allows
for data packets to appear as though they are of a public nature to a public
network when they are actually private data packets, allowing them to pass
through unnoticed. Tunneling is also known as port forwarding. The most
significant benefit of Tunneling is that it allows for the creation of VPNs over
public data networks to provide cost savings for both end users, who do not
have to create dedicated networks, and for Service Providers, who can
leverage their network investments across many VPN customers.
40: ACL?
Access control list, those allowed non harmful things which a firewall
doesn't block
Access-list (ACL) is a set of rules defined for controlling the network traffic
and reducing network attack. ACLs are used to filter traffic based on the set
of rules defined for the incoming or out going of the network.
ACL features –
1. The set of rules defined are matched serial wise i.e matching starts
with the first line, then 2nd, then 3rd and so on.
2. The packets are matched only until it matches the rule. Once a rule is
matched then no further comparison takes place and that rule will be
performed.
3. There is an implicit deny at the end of every ACL, i.e., if no condition
or rule matches then the packet will be discarded.
Once the access-list is built, then it should be applied to inbound or outbound
of the interface:
 Inbound access lists – When an access list is applied on inbound
packets of the interface then first the packets will processed according
to the access list and then routed to the outbound interface.
 Outbound access lists – When an access list is applied on outbound
packets of the interface then first the packet will be routed and then
processed at the outbound interface.
Types:
1. Standard Access-list
2. Extended Access-list

41: Does a firewall only caters outside traffic?

No, like YouTube blockage is a real world example
42: use of ICMP
Error reporting n error detection
Since IP does not have a inbuilt mechanism for sending error and control
messages. It depends on Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to
provide an error control. It is used for reporting errors and management
queries. It is a supporting protocol and used by networks devices like routers
for sending the error messages and operations information. e.g. the
requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be
reached

43: ARP vs RARP

Address resolution for IP to MAC ( Logical address known, physical
unknown )
And reverse address resolution protocol used for MAC to IP (
Physical known, logical unknown)

44: Does we need DHCP for Ipv 6?

No

45: FTP and TFTP

File transfer protocol uses udp
Trivial file tranfer protocl uses(69) tcp

46: Does youtube use UDP or TCP?

For low quality streaming udp and for high streaming tcp
47: What is Two Generals' Problem or Two Army's Problem?
There is a famous problem that illustrates this issue. It is called the two-army problem.
Imagine that a white army is encamped in a valley, as shown in Fig. 6.2. On both of the
surrounding hillsides are blue armies. The white army is larger than either of the blue
armies alone, but together the blue armies are larger than the white army. If either blue
army attacks by itself, it will be defeated, but if the two blue armies attack simultaneously,
they will be victorious.

Figure 6.2 The two-army problem.

The blue armies want to synchronize their attacks. However, their only communication
medium is to send messengers on foot down into the valley, where they might be
captured and the message lost (i.e., they have to use an unreliable communication
channel). The question is: Does a protocol exist that allows the blue armies to win?

Suppose that the commander of blue army #1 sends a message reading: ''I propose we
attack at dawn on March 29. How about it?'' Now suppose that the message arrives, the
commander of blue army #2 agrees, and his reply gets safely back to blue army #1. Will
the attack happen? Probably not, because commander #2 does not know if his reply got
through. If it did not, blue army #1 will not attack, so it would be foolish for him to charge
into battle. Now let us improve the protocol by making it a three-way handshake. The
initiator of the original proposal must acknowledge the response. Assuming no messages
are lost, blue army #2 will get the acknowledgement, but the commander of blue army #1
will now hesitate. After all, he does not know if his acknowledgement got through, and if
it did not, he knows that blue army #2 will not attack. We could now make a four-way
handshake protocol, but that does not help either.
48: TFTP use which port?
69

49: FTP use which port

20 and 21
21 is to establish the connection, 20 is used for actual payload
51: Three way handshake
req for connection, acknowledgement n connection establishment
Step 1: In the first step, the client establishes a connection with a server. It
sends a segment with SYN and informs the server about the client should
start communication, and with what should be its sequence number.
Step 2: In this step server responds to the client request with SYN-ACK
signal set. ACK helps you to signify the response of segment that is received
and SYN signifies what sequence number it should able to start with the
segments.
Step 3: In this final step, the client acknowledges the response of the Server,
and they both create a stable connection will begin the actual data transfer
process.
52: CSMA/CD
Detection of collision while transferring data in wired network
How CSMA/CD works?
Step 1: Check if the sender is ready for transmitting data packets.
Step 2: Check if the transmission link is idle? Sender has to keep on
checking if the transmission link/medium is idle. For this it continously senses
transmissions from other nodes. Sender sends dummy data on the [Link] it
does not receive any collision signal, this means the link is idle at the
[Link] it senses that the carrier is free and there are no collisions, it sends
the data. Otherwise it refrains from sending data.
Step 3: Transmit the data & check for collisions. Sender transmits its data
on the link. CSMA/CD does not use ‘acknowledgement’ system. It checks for
the successful and unsuccessful transmissions through collision signals.
During transmission, if collision signal is received by the node, transmission
is stopped. The station then transmits a jam signal onto the link and waits for
random time interval before it resends the frame. After some random time, it
again attempts to transfer the data and repeats above process.
Step 4: If no collision was detected in propagation, the sender completes its
frame transmission and resets the counters.

53: ALOHA
transmitting of frame detecting whether the channel is idle or busy
ALOHA is a multiple access protocol for transmission of data via a shared
network channel. It operates in the medium access control sublayer (MAC
sublayer) of the open systems interconnection (OSI) model. Using this
protocol, several data streams originating from multiple nodes are
transferred through a multi-point transmission channel. In ALOHA, each
node or station transmits a frame without trying to detect whether the
transmission channel is idle or busy. If the channel is idle, then the frames
will be successfully transmitted. If two frames attempt to occupy the channel
simultaneously, collision of frames will occur and the frames will be
discarded. These stations may choose to retransmit the corrupted frames
repeatedly until successful transmission occurs.
54: Pure vs slotted aloha?
Pure>no time slots
Slotted> obviously
So in pure any station can transmit data or try to send at any time
While in slotted only at the beginning of time slot
"Anytime dara transmission vs time slot data transmit"
Pure ALOHA In pure ALOHA, the time of transmission is
[Link] a station hasan available frame, it sends the frame. If
there is collision and the frame is destroyed, the sender waits for a random
amount of time before retransmitting it.
Slotted ALOHA Slotted ALOHA reduces the number of collisions and
doubles the capacity of pure ALOHA. The shared channel is divided into a
number of discrete time intervals called slots. A station can transmit only at
the beginning of each slot. However, there can still be collisions if more than
one station tries to transmit at the beginning of the same time slot.

55: Aloha is protocl of which layer

Layer 2

56: Aloha and CSMA/CD used for

Congestion control k liye hi CSMA/CD and ALOHA use krre hain.

57: Sliding window protocol?

Flow control protocol used in DLL... Uses wasted time for productive
usage
Sliding window protocols are data link layer protocols for reliable and
sequential delivery of data frames. The sliding window is also used in
Transmission Control Protocol. In this protocol, multiple frames can be sent
by a sender at a time before receiving an acknowledgment from the receiver.
The term sliding window refers to the imaginary boxes to hold frames. Sliding
window method is also known as windowing.
58: Piggybacking?
Acknowledgement payload k sth hi bhej dena
a solution that provides better utilization of bandwidth is piggybacking. Here,
sending of acknowledgment is delayed until the next data frame is available
for transmission. The acknowledgment is then hooked onto the outgoing
data frame. The data frame consists of an ack field. The size of the ack field
is only a few bits, while an acknowledgment frame comprises of several
bytes. Thus, a substantial gain is obtained in reducing bandwidth
requirement

59: TTL
Time to live,
The time-to-live (TTL) is the number of hops that a packet is permitted to
travel before being discarded by a router.
Time to Live its used in Multicasting Routing

60: SSL
Secure socket layer
Secure Socket Layer (SSL) provide security to the data that is transferred
between web browser and server. SSL encrypt the link between a web server
and a browser which ensures that all data passed between them remain
private and free from attack.
Secure Socket Layer Protocols:
SSL record protocol
Handshake protocol
Change-cipher spec protocol
Alert protocol

61: Dos vs Ddos

Single source vs multi source DOS attacks
1. DOS Attack :
A DOS attack is a denial of service attack, in this attack a computer sends
massive amount of traffic to a victims computer and shuts it down. Dos attack
is a online attack which is used to make the website unavailable for its users
when done on a website. This attack make the server of a website down
which is connected to internet by sending a large number of traffic to it.
2. DDOS Attack :
In ddos attack means distributed denial of service in this attack dos attacks
are done from many different locations using many systems.

50: What is formula to find the total number of wires in mesh

topologies....
N(n-1)/2

62: Ids?
How to avoid false alarm in ids
Intrusion detection system, used To avoid false positives, We will have
to maintain a good ACL....
An Intrusion Detection System (IDS) is a system that monitors network traffic
for suspicious activity and issues alerts when such activity is discovered. It
is a software application that scans a network or a system for harmful activity
or policy breaching. Any malicious venture or violation is normally reported
either to an administrator or collected centrally using a security information
and event management (SIEM) system. A SIEM system integrates outputs
from multiple sources and uses alarm filtering techniques to differentiate
malicious activity from false alarms.
63: IPS
Intrusion prevention system
Not only alarming but to also to prevent the attack by the system
Intrusion Prevention System is also known as Intrusion Detection and
Prevention System. It is a network security application that monitors network
or system activities for malicious activity. Major functions of intrusion
prevention systems are to identify malicious activity, collect information
about this activity, report it and attempt to block or stop it.

64: Forward broadcast

To avoid flooding overhead and duplicate packets received in broadcasting
we use forward Broadcast in which duplicate and redundent packets
received in a network from different paths are discarded and only one
copy is kept

65: Wimax
Wireless in MAN like 4g, 5g
 Acronym for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.
 Based on Wireless MAN technology.
 A wireless technology optimized for the delivery of IP centric services
over a wide area.
 A scalable wireless platform for constructing alternative and
complementary broadband networks.
 A certification that denotes interoperability of equipment built to the
IEEE 802.16 or compatible standard.
 The IEEE 802.16 Working Group develops standards that address two
types of usage models –
o A fixed usage model (IEEE 802.16-2004).
o A portable usage model (IEEE 802.16e)
66: In 802
What is80?
What is2?
It was developed in feb 1980
2 is [Link]
80 for 1980

67: what is 802.3?

Ethernet
802.3 is a standard specification for Ethernet, a method of packet-based
physical communication in a local area network (LAN)

68: Default gateway?

Default gateway is used to connect local network to external networks
A default gateway is the node in a computer network using the internet
protocol suite that serves as the forwarding host (router) to other networks
when no other route specification matches the destination IP address of a
packet

69: Wireless protocols?

Zigbee z-wave and Bluetooth

70: amplifier vs repeater

Repeater takes high input power and provides low output power. Amplifier
takes low input power and provides high output power. ... Repeater
regenerates the signal so that the noise can be reduced or eliminated.
Amplifier increases the amplitude of the signal with the noise
 BASIS FOR
REPEATER AMPLIFIER
COMPARISON

Basic It decodes the signal and It just increases the

extract the original signal and amplitude of the signal.

regenerate the signal then

retransmit it.

Noise generation Repeater eliminates the noise Amplifier amplifies the

by regenerating the signal. signal along with the

noise.

Properties High gain and low output Low gain and high

power. output power.

Mainly used in Stationary environment. Remote area and mobile

environment.

Outcome of using Maximizes the signal to noise Minimizes the signal to

the device ratio hence decreases the noise levels, therefore,

error associated with the increases the noise.

signal.