Additive Manufacturing

Manufacturing process
Special Case: Powder PM is a Hybrid:
Metallurgy (PM) • Formative (compaction)
• Additive-like (powder)
Powder → Compaction • Subtractive (optional
→ Sintering → Final finishing)
Product
TMP: Thermo Mechanical
Processing
Subtractive (Remove Material)
Raw Material → Melting → Ingot or Continuous Casting (semi-finished products like Bloom, Billet or slab) → TMP → CNC
Machining → Final Part Examples: Milling, Turning
Formative (Deformation)
Raw Material → Melting → Ingot or Continuous Casting (semi-finished products) → TMP→ Die/ Mould → Final Part
Examples: Casting, Forging, Rolling
Additive (Build Layer-by-Layer) Gas atomization → Powder
Raw Material → Melting → Ingot or continuous Casting (semi-finished products) → CAD →
Printing → Post-processing → Final art Hot rolling + wire drawing
Examples: 3D Printing → Filament

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 Manufacturing process

Continuous rolling process

Closed die forging coining process

Formative (Deformation)

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 Manufacturing process

Subtractive (Remove Material)

Formative (Deformation)

Additive (Build Layer-by-Layer)

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 Purification
Mining

Steel making
Steel making from scrap to finished product
 Subtractive and Formative manufacturing
① Conventional route
Melting
Melting

Steel billet
Steel billet

TMP
TMP

Billet Forged Material Machining Disks

Die/ mould
CNC Milling

Final
Final
Product
Product
Subtractive Manufacturing of turbine disks Formative

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 Issues in conventional manufacturing
Conventional manufacturing process

How can we deal with it?

Main issues
➢ Design limitations
➢ Several manufacturing operations
➢ Up to 95% of material removal
➢ Tooling…etc.
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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025) [Link]
 Additive manufacturing

“Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to a process by which digital 3D

design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing
material”
(From the International Committee F42 for Additive Manufacturing Technologies, ASTM, 2009)

What You See Is What You Build (WYSIWYB) Process

In the mid-1980s by “Charles Chuck Hull” invented the first form of 3D printing called
Stereolithography (SLA) or Vat Photopolymerization

Got US patent in 1986

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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
 Examples from Nature

Curtesy: Sony BBC

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 Generic Additive Manufacturing process
Types of AM techniques

1. Vat photopolymerization
2. Material Extrusion
3. Binder jetting
4. Material jetting
5. Powder bed fusion
6. Direct energy deposition
7. Sheet lamination

Source: Gibson, Additive Manufacturing

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 Additive vs Subtractive Manufacturing

Material removal rate reduced for AM

Features that represent problems using CNC machining

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Source: Gibson, Additive Manufacturing Conner et al. Additive manufacturing (2014)
 Additive vs Subtractive Manufacturing

➢ Traditional subtractive manufacturing generally offers advantages such as lower cost per part (especially for large-scale
production), high speed, good component strength, and a wide range of material options.
➢ However, emerging AM technologies are rapidly bridging these gaps, introducing a new design space that includes on-
demand fabrication, customization, and complex geometries, thereby redefining contemporary manufacturing practices.

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Additive Manufacturing Science and Technology by Emrah Celik 2nd Edition
 Advantages of AM over subtractive or traditional manufacturing
➢ Enhanced design capability: Additive Manufacturing (AM) enables the fabrication of
complex and moving parts (e.g., hinges and chains) in a single build, which are difficult or
impossible with conventional manufacturing. It removes traditional design constraints, reduces
part count, and allows rapid digital redesign using CAD tools. Its ease of use also makes AM
accessible to a wide range of users, including engineers, architects, artists, and students, thereby
expanding the design possibilities and increasing interest in the technology.
➢ AM is capable of building complex three-dimensional geometrical shapes.

➢ No tooling: In additive manufacturing (AM), parts are built directly on a print bed without the
need for jigs, fixtures, or molds. This eliminates expensive tooling and significantly reduces
manufacturing costs compared to traditional methods.

➢ On-demand manufacturing: Parts can be produced immediately once a CAD model is ready
and sent digitally, enabling local or remote fabrication and reducing transportation needs.
Additive Manufacturing Science and Technology by Emrah Celik 2nd Edition

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 Advantages of AM over subtractive or traditional manufacturing
➢ Rapid prototyping: AM produces prototypes within hours, allowing quick testing and faster
product development compared to conventional methods.

➢ Minimal material waste: AM builds parts layer by layer using only the required material,
minimizing waste; unused powder or support material can often be recycled.

➢ Low cost for small production runs: AM is cost-effective for producing small quantities of
complex parts because it avoids the expensive tooling required in traditional manufacturing.

➢ It is automated based on CAD models.

➢ AM requires minimal or no human intervention and set-up time.

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Additive Manufacturing Science and Technology by Emrah Celik 2nd Edition
 Advantages of AM over subtractive or traditional manufacturing

➢ Compared with subtractive processes, AM is more efficient in terms of reduced

environmental impact for manufacturing sustainability.

➢ The speeding up of the whole product development process relies greatly on the fact that
computers are used throughout.

“The main advantage of AM is its ability to produce complex near net shaped (NNS) parts
in difficult to machine materials.”

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 Limitations of Additive Manufacturing (AM)
➢ Sometimes, supporting materials are needed.

➢ Post-processing is sometimes needed for optimum surface quality and for the removal of
supporting materials.

➢ AM equipment is an expensive investment compared with subtractive processes. Simple 3D

printers average approximately $5000 and can go as high as $50,000 for large-sized models,
not including the cost of accessories and resins or other operational materials.

➢ The maintenance of some AM machines is more complex than others; the maintenance
requirements will differ.

➢ Material restrictions: some machines can only process one or two materials, while others can
process more, including composites.
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Current and Potential industries for Additive Manufacturing

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Kiran et al. Nanocomposites (2018) [Link]
consumption-and-reduced-co%E2%82%82-emissions/
 Additive Manufacturing synonyms

➢ Rapid manufacturing (RM)

➢ Rapid prototyping (RP)
➢ Layered manufacturing (LM)
➢ Additive layer manufacturing (ALM)
➢ Desktop manufacturing (DM)
➢ Additive tooling (AT)
➢ Freeform fabrication (FFF)
➢ Solid-form fabrication (SFF)
➢ Direct digital manufacturing (DDM)

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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
 Classification of Additive manufacturing

Difference between various AM techniques?

✓ Techniques used for creating layers
✓ Speed
✓ Layer thickness
✓ Range of materials
✓ Accuracy
✓ Cost

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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
 Classification of Additive manufacturing

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Fundamentals
▪ Additive manufacturing - process of joining materials to make objects from three-
dimensional (3D) model data, usually layer by layer, as opposed to subtractive
manufacturing methodologies
➢ Unlike subtractive methods that fabricate products by removing materials from a
larger stock or metal sheet, AM creates the final shape by adding materials.
➢ It has the ability to make efficient use of raw materials and produce minimal waste
while reaching satisfactory geometric accuracy.
➢ Using AM, a design in the form of a computerized 3D solid model can be directly
transformed into a finished product without the use of additional fixtures and cutting
tools.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Fundamentals – basic classification
➢ There are seven basic types of AM techniques:
1. Material extrusion:
▪ commonly known as FDM or fused deposition modeling
▪ This takes a filament of material and pulls it through a heated nozzle to the
point of melting.
▪ It is then deposited where it is needed.
2. Material jetting
▪ this uses inkjet technology, but using material to selectively deposit where
needed.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Fundamentals – basic classification
➢ There are seven basic types of AM techniques:
3. Binder jetting:
▪ It uses inkjet printer heads that selectively bind powder together
▪ The product is built up one layer at a time, with another layer of powder being
spread across the top each time.
4. Powder bed fusion
▪ Same as binder jetting, except that instead of a binder being used to fuse the
powder granules together, a laser or electron beam melts them together

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Fundamentals – basic classification
➢ There are seven basic types of AM techniques:
5. Directed energy deposition (DED):
▪ this is similar to FDM but using a metal wire instead of a polymer filament
▪ It can also use a powder fired into place.
▪ The powder or wire is then melted and welded onto the previous layer or
surface by an electron beam or laser.
6. Sheet lamination
▪ It works using any sheet material, which is cut by a laser or scalpel into shape
▪ the next sheet layer is cut to size and shape and stuck down on top of it.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process
➢ The AM production process begins with a 3D model that is designed using
computer-aided design (CAD) software → a final CAD model of the 3D print is
generated, which is a primary stage called preprocessing
➢ The second production stage is called processing.
➢ As a 3D printed object is fabricated layer by layer, each consecutive layer has to be
supported by either the platform, the preceding layer, or extra support elements.
➢ After the correct and optimal orientation of the model and the supports has been
designed, the STL model, including the supports, is sliced into layers with a plane
parallel to the platform surface, namely, the x-y plane.
➢ Each layer is then built consecutively in the z direction.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process
➢ The layer thickness depends on the printer, AM technology, and quality requirements.
Finally, the sliced model is sent to the printer.

➢ After the printing is finished, the model is removed from the platform, and other
technical processing procedures are used to refine the printed object in a stage called
post-processing.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Standard Triangle Language (STL file format)
➢ The Standard Triangle Language or STereoLithography (STL) is the industry
standard file type for 3D printing.
➢ It uses a series of triangles to represent the surfaces of a solid model.
➢ The 3D model is then converted into machine language (G-code) through a process
called “slicing” and is ready to print.
➢ The STL file format uses a series of linked triangles to recreate the surface
geometry of a solid model.
➢ When higher resolution is required, more triangles should be used to
approximate the surfaces of the 3D model better → size of the STL file increases

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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Standard Triangle Language (STL file format)

➢ If too low resolution is used, the model will have visible triangles on its surface
when it is printed
➢ Increasing the resolution above a certain point is also not recommended, as it
brings no additional benefit, making it more difficult to handle and process due to the
much-enhanced file size

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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Standard Triangle Language (STL file format)
➢ The STL file describes only the surface geometry of a three-dimensional object
without any representation of color, texture, or other common model attributes.
➢ The STL file encodes the information using a concept called Tesselation → a process
of tiling a surface with one or more geometric shapes such that there are no overlaps
or gaps.

Tessellation of a 3D pig
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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
 How Does the STL File Format Store a 3D Model?
Two ways to store information about the triangular facets that tile the
object surface

1) ASCII Encoding
2) Binary coding

In both formats, the file name is .stl

The following information is about “ Triangle is stored”

i. The co-ordinates of the vertices
ii. The components of the unit normal vector to the triangle (The
normal vector should point outward with respect to the 3D model)

Which format should be selected?

➢ Binary file for 3D printing, which results in smaller file sizes.

➢ If it is required to inspect the STL file for “Debugging“ manually, then the ASCII file.
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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
 Optimizing an STL file for the best 3D printing
Most important settings and their optimum values
1) Chord height or tolerance
The chord height is the maximum distance between the
actual CAD surface and the STL mesh. A smaller chord
height produces smoother and more accurate surfaces.
Typically, a tolerance of 1–10 μm is recommended for good
print quality.

2) Angular deviation or angular tolerance

Angular tolerance controls the maximum angle between the
normals of adjacent triangles in the STL mesh. Lower
angular deviation improves surface resolution. The default
value is usually around 15°, and reducing it increases model
accuracy.
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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Standard Triangle Language (STL file format) - rules
➢ Rule 1: Each triangle must share two vertices with its neighboring triangles

(a)

(b)

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Standard Triangle Language (STL file format) - rules
➢ Rule 2: The orientation of each facet is specified in two ways:
I. the normal should point to the outer side.
II. the vertices get listed in the counterclockwise direction.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Standard Triangle Language (STL file format) - rules
➢ Rule 3: The all-positive octant rule states that all the coordinates of the vertices of the
triangles should all be positive. This restricts the whole 3D model or the first octant of
the 3D coordinate system to the area where all coordinates are positive. This
simplifies the design and saves on space.

Octant I is the all-positive octant

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Standard Triangle Language (STL file format) - rules
➢ Rule 4: The triangles need to appear in the rising z-value order. This rule facilitates
faster slicing of 3D models.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM printing process
➢ For 3D printing, the STL file has to be opened in a dedicated slicer → a 3D printing
software that converts digital 3D models into printing instructions for the 3D printer to
create an object. E.g., Cura, Prusa Slicer, Simplify 3D, etc.
➢ The slicer chops up the STL file into hundreds (sometimes thousands) of flat
horizontal layers based on the chosen settings and calculates how much material
the printer will need to build the object and how long it will take to do it.
➢ All this information is bundled up into a G-Code file, 3D printer’s native language.
➢ Once the G-Code has been uploaded to the 3D printer, in the next stage the separate
2D layers are reassembled as a three-dimensional object on the print bed.
➢ This is done by depositing a succession of thin layers of plastics, metals, or
composite materials, and building up the model one layer at a time.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM printing process
Some further important aspects need to be considered for a successful 3D printing:
➢ Not every STL file is 3D printable. Only a 3D design that’s specifically made for 3D
printing is 3D printable.
➢ 3D models suitable for 3D printing need to have a minimum wall thickness and a
“watertight” (i.e., no holes, gaps, or overlaps) surface geometry to be 3D printable.
➢ If the model is printed upright, then overhanging elements with more than a 45° angle
will require supports.
➢ The STL file format approximates the surface of a CAD model with triangles. The
approximation is never perfect, and the facets introduce coarseness to the model → It
is very important to find the right balance between file size and print quality

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM printing process

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 Different Additive Manufacturing (AM) file formats

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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques
➢ The American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM)
“ASTM F42—Additive
Manufacturing” group
formulated a set of standards
that classify the range of AM
processes into seven
categories (ASTM 2009).
➢ Each category incorporates a
number of processes

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Vat Photopolymerization
➢ It uses a vat of liquid photopolymer resin, out of which the model is constructed layer
by layer.
➢ An ultraviolet (UV) light is used to cure or harden the resin where required, while a
platform moves the object being made downward after each new layer is cured.
➢ Polymers and ceramics can be processed.
➢ The two most common types of this technology are
▪ stereolithography (SLA)
▪ digital light processing (DLP)
▪ Continuous liquid interface production (CLIP) or Continuous Digital Light Processing
(CDLP)
▪ Volumetric vat manufacturing
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Vat Photopolymerization
Stereolithography (SLA)

➢ SLA uses photosensitive monomer resins that react to the radiation of lasers in the
ultraviolet (UV) range.
➢ Upon irradiation, these materials undergo a chemical reaction to become solid →
photopolymerization
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Vat Photopolymerization
Stereolithography (SLA)
➢ It consists of a platform that can be moved vertically inside a vessel (vat) containing
the photosensitive polymer
➢ The laser beam can be controlled in the x-y direction.
➢ By controlling the movements of the beam and the platform through a servo-control
system, a variety of parts can be formed by this process.
➢ Total cycle times range from a few hours to a day.
➢ The function of the laser is to harden (cure) the photosensitive polymer where the
beam strikes the liquid
➢ When the initial layer is completed, the platform is lowered by a distance equal to the
layer thickness, and the next layer is formed on the top of the first
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Vat Photopolymerization
Stereolithography (SLA)
➢ Each layer ranges typically from 0.075 - 0.50 mm, and scan speed of SLA lasers
typically ranges between 500 and 2500 mm/s
Advantages of SLA
▪ High level of accuracy and good finish
▪ Relatively quick process and fully automated
▪ Typically large build areas and maximum model weight 200 kg possible
Disadvantages
▪ Lengthy post-processing time and removal from resin
▪ Materials used in SLA are relatively limited
▪ Relatively expensive and working with liquid can be messy
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Vat Photopolymerization
Digital light processing (DLP)

➢ The main components of a DLP 3D printer are the following: the digital light projector
screen, the digital micromirror device (DMD), the vat (resin tank), the build plate, and
the elevator for the build plate

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Vat Photopolymerization
Digital light processing (DLP)
➢ The digital light projector is the light source of a DLP 3D printer. The DMD is a
component, made of thousands of micromirrors used for navigating the light beam
projected by the DLP
➢ The projector is mounted into the lower part of the machine body (under the vat).
➢ the vat needs to have a transparent bottom so that the light projected by the DLP
reaches the resin and cures it
➢ The build platform is the surface the printed objects stick to during printing. The z axis
is the direction for slowly lifting the build platform during the printing process.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Vat Photopolymerization
Digital light processing (DLP)
➢ The main difference between SLA and DLP is the light source used for the
solidification of the resin.
➢ DLP uses a digital light projector screen, which flashes the image of the layer and
therefore cures the resin in the form of the layer.
➢ SLA 3D printers use a laser from the vat top that cures the resin into layers by
“drawing” the layer’s pattern on the bottom of the resin tank
➢ Because the digital light projector of a DLP 3D printer flashes the entire image of a
layer at once and therefore cures the layer, layers are made fast. While the laser in
the SLA printer has to go “point by point” to cure a single layer, rendering the process
slower.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Vat Photopolymerization
Digital light processing (DLP)
Advantages of DLP
➢ Very intricate designs can be made, more accurate than FDM or SLS
➢ Fast, almost always faster than SLA printing
➢ Lower running costs than SLA, as usually a shallower resin vat is used, reducing
waste
Disadvantages
➢ As with SLA, parts cannot be left out in the sun or they will degrade
➢ Parts overall have worse mechanical properties than FDM
➢ More expensive to run than FDM; resins are far more expensive than filaments

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Difference between Digital Light Processing (DLP) & Continuous Digital Light Processing

CDLP or CLIP DLP

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“Fundamentals of Additive Manufacturing: Principles, Technologies and Applications, “CRC Press, Taylor & Francis (2025)
Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material jetting (MJ)

(A) Schematic of material jetting technology and (B) fully

colored parts fabricated by a material jetting system.

➢ Material jetting (MJ) is an AM process that operates in a similar fashion to 2D inkjet

printers.
➢ MJ machines are based on jetting the material in the form of liquid droplets through
nozzles in a printhead
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material jetting (MJ)
➢ The printhead moves horizontally onto a build platform to form a thin layer.
➢ When the layer solidifies, the platform is moved down, a second layer is deposited,
and so on, building the part layer by layer.
➢ Droplets that are not used are recycled back into the printing system.
➢ The material layers are then cured or hardened using UV light. Support structures are
always required in MJ and need post-processing to be removed.
➢ To facilitate jetting, materials that are solid at room temperature must be heated so
that they liquefy.
➢ For high-viscosity fluids, the viscosity of the fluid must be lowered to enable jetting.
➢ The most common practices are to use heat or solvents or other low-viscosity
components in the fluid.
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material jetting (MJ)

CS DOD
➢ There are two distinctive techniques of material release during jetting – Continuous
Stream (CS) and Drop-on Demand (DOD)

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material jetting (MJ)
➢ The distinction refers to the form in which the liquid exits the nozzle
➢ In CS mode, a steady pressure is applied to the fluid reservoir, causing a pressurized
column of fluid to be ejected from the nozzle → After departing the nozzle, this stream
breaks into droplets
➢ In DOD mode, individual droplets are produced directly from the nozzle.
➢ DOD methods can deposit droplets of 25–120 μm at a rate of 0–2000 drops per
second.
➢ In Poly-Jet (PJ) or Multi-Jet Modeling (MJM), the number of jetting nozzles is
increased, changing the material solidification strategy.
➢ machines jetting photopolymers using print heads with over 1500 nozzles have been
developed.
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material jetting (MJ)

Typical plastic components fabricated by MJ

Typical metallic components fabricated by MJ

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material jetting (MJ)
Advantages
➢ High speed and scalability: by using print heads with several nozzles, it is possible to
deposit a lot of material quickly and over a considerable area.
➢ Very big, intricate parts can be printed with great accuracy. Large industrial parts can
be as big as 1000 × 800 × 500 mm
➢ Ease of building parts that are fully transparent or in multiple materials, and multiple
colors.
➢ Parts created with MJ have homogeneous mechanical and thermal properties
➢ MJ products have very high dimensional accuracy and excellent surface finish. MJ
systems have a dimensional accuracy of ±0.1% with a typical lower limit of ±0.1 mm
(sometimes as low as ±0.02 mm)
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material jetting (MJ)
Advantages
➢ The level of post-processing required to enhance the properties is less compared with
other AM processes
➢ The process benefits from highly accurate deposition of droplets and therefore, low
waste
➢ MJ offers the option of printing parts in either a glossy or a matte setting.
➢ Printing machines are much lower in cost than other AM machines

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material jetting (MJ)
Disadvantages
➢ The choice of materials is limited; only waxes and photopolymers are commercially
available
➢ Part accuracy, particularly for large parts, is generally not as good as with some other
processes, notably vat photopolymerization and ME
➢ Warping can occur during build-up
➢ If the material is not in liquid form or suitable viscosity to begin with, additional
techniques may be necessary
➢ Much attention must be given to monitoring and maintaining nozzle performance
➢ Support material is often required
➢ Slow build process
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)

AM process techniques – Material extrusion (ME)

➢ ME is a process in which material in the form of a continuous
filament of thermoplastic or composite is drawn through a
nozzle, where it is heated and is then deposited layer by layer
to construct 3D parts.
➢ The nozzle can move horizontally, and a platform moves up
and down vertically after each new layer is deposited.
➢ It is the most popular technique in terms of availability for
general consumer demand and quality.
Material extrusion is classified into two
➢ Fused filament fabrication (FFF) or Fused deposition modelling (FDM)
➢ Direct write (DW) Schematic of extrusion technology: (A) fused
filament fabrication (FFF) and (B) direct write (DW)
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material extrusion (ME)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
➢ FDM is a process in which a filament of a build
material is extruded onto the part surface from a
work-head.
➢ The filament has a typical diameter ranging
from 1 to 3 mm.
➢ It is unwound from a coil and fed to an extrusion
nozzle into the work-head that heats the
material to about 1°C above the filament’s
melting point so that it solidifies almost
immediately after extrusion and cold welds to
the previous cold layers within about 0.1 second
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material extrusion (ME)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
➢ A wide variety of materials can be used in FDM. E.g., polymers, wax, metals, and
ceramics.
➢ Typical layer thickness varies from 0.18 to 0.36 mm. About 400 mm filament length
can be deposited per second by the extrusion work-head
➢ Accuracy and speed are low when compared with other processes, and the quality of
the final model is limited by the material nozzle thickness.
➢ As with most heat-related post-processing processes, shrinkage is likely to occur and
must be taken into account if a close tolerance is required.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material extrusion (ME)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
➢ Complicated parts, such as those shown in the figure below, necessitate the use of
dual-head FDM systems.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material extrusion (ME)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
➢ As it became possible to equip FDM with multiple extruders for speeding up the
fabrication or opening multi-material capabilities, composite fabrication became
possible.
➢ In Composite filament fabrication (CFF), one nozzle operates following the typical ME
process; it lays down a plastic filament that forms the outer shell and the internal
matrix of the part.
➢ The second nozzle deposits a continuous strand of composite fiber (made with
carbon, fiberglass, or Kevlar) on every layer.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material extrusion (ME)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Schematic of Composite Filament Fabrication

(CFF) process

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material extrusion (ME)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
Advantages of the FDM process
➢ Use of readily available acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic, close to a final
production model
➢ In low-volume cases, FDM can be a more economical method
➢ Low maintenance cost, quiet, nontoxic, cost-effective, and office-friendly process
➢ Fast for small shapes
➢ Produces strong parts
➢ Able to produce multi-colored parts using colored ABS

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Material extrusion (ME)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
Disadvantages of the FDM process
➢ Presence of seam line between layers and need for supports
➢ Long build time when making large-size models
➢ Relatively low accuracy and poor surface finish
➢ Not capable of making complicated parts
➢ Accuracy and productivity are low when compared with other processes
➢ Accuracy of the final model is limited by material nozzle size

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)

➢ Powder bed fusion (PBF) processes are the most widely used AM processes for
manufacturing intricate components using any engineering material such as metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composites.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
➢ All PBF processes share a basic set of characteristics
▪ one or more thermal sources for inducing fusion between powder particles
▪ a method for controlling powder fusion to a prescribed region of each layer
▪ mechanisms for adding and smoothing powder layers
➢ When the selective fusion of one layer has been completed, the building platform is
lowered by a predetermined distance (ranging from 20 to 200 μm), and the next layer
of powder is deposited on the previous one.
➢ The process is then repeated with successive layers of powder until the part is
completely built.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
Advantages of PBF
➢ PBF processes permit low cost per part
➢ Unused powder is easily recycled, which reduces overall material costs
➢ PBF is completely customizable
➢ PBF can be used for rapid prototyping, visual prototyping, low-volume production, or
full high-volume production runs
➢ PBF requires no support structures, reducing post-processing times
➢ The material choice across all PBF options is impressive; it is one of a few methods
that can create reliable metal parts

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
Diasdvantages of PBF
➢ Most methods have relatively slow print times
➢ Printers of this type have high power usage, especially laser-driven printers
➢ The surface quality and overall integrity of a print rely heavily on the quality and grain
size of its powder, as well as tight thermal management
➢ While recyclable, some of the unused powder will be wasted in the printing process
➢ Thermal distortion can shrink/warp parts (especially the case for polymer parts)

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
Electron beam melting (EBM)
➢ EBM uses a high-energy electron beam under high
vacuum to induce fusion between metal powder
particles.
➢ The process is three to five times faster than other
additive technologies.
➢ Parts produced via EBM are near net shape, like
those made via precision casting processes; thus,
secondary infiltration processes are eliminated.
➢ The EBM parts are built in vacuum, which
increases the energy efficiency and supports
processing of reactive metal alloys such Ti
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
Electron beam melting (EBM)
➢ The EBM process can also produce hollow parts with an internal strengthening
scaffold, which is impossible with any other method
➢ In EBM, the powder bed must be conductive → the process can only be used for
conductive materials (e.g. metals) and cannot be applied for nonconductive materials
such as polymers or ceramics.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
Selective laser melting (SLM) ➢ This process fabricates products layer by layer with
the help of high-energy laser beams on a powder
bed.
➢ In SLM, a laser is fitted on top with a set of lenses
focused on the powdered material for melting the
required areas of the layer.
➢ Once a layer is solidified, the build platform goes
down, and the recoated arm makes a new layer on
the top of the bed.
➢ This entire process will repeat until the whole part
is produced.
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
Selective laser melting (SLM)
➢ This method has the advantages of producing high-precision and high-quality
products.
➢ It is most useful for products with complex internal geometries, like spiral vents and
nested cores, or for rare metals that would be prohibitively expensive to machine.
➢ These improved design features exhibit higher mechanical and physical performance
characteristics.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
Selective laser melting (SLM)

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Binder Jetting (BJ)
➢ The process involves selectively adding
binder where it is needed on top of powder
layer by layer to form part cross sections.
➢ A typical layer comprises particles of about
100 µm.
➢ A wide range of polymers, composites,
metals, and ceramic materials have been
manufactured
➢ Some machines contain nozzles that print
color, not binder, enabling the fabrication of
parts with many colors.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Binder Jetting (BJ)
➢ Once a layer is printed, the powder bed is lowered, and a new layer of powder is
spread onto it (typically via a counter-rotating rolling mechanism).
➢ If the process is capable of printing colored parts, some printheads are dedicated to
printing binder material, while others are dedicated to printing color.
➢ Since the process can be economically scaled by simply increasing the number of
printer nozzles, the process is considered a scalable, linewise patterning process.
➢ The printed part is usually left in the powder bed after its completion in order for the
binder to fully set and for the green part to gain strength.
➢ Post-processing is necessary to reach a final functional product → sintering,
machining, etc.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Binder Jetting (BJ)

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Binder Jetting (BJ)
Advantages
➢ Due to its fast print speeds and relatively low costs, BJ is a cost-effective choice for
3D printing
➢ A range of materials (in powder form) can be used, giving the flexibility to create
parts from materials like polymers, metals, ceramics, and even sandstone, and silica
➢ The process requires no support structures because the part is surrounded by the
unbound powder. This also means that several parts can be printed in the same
powder bed at once, ideal for low to medium batch production
➢ A significant advantage of BJ over other 3D printing technologies is that no additional
heat is applied to the part → distortions are eliminated
➢ BJ processes lend themselves readily to printing colors onto parts
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Binder Jetting (BJ)
Disadvantages
➢ Parts produced with BJ technology may have limited mechanical properties, or
poorer accuracies and surface finish → additional post-processing may be required
➢ Additional post-processing can add much more time and cost to the overall
production process
➢ For metal and ceramic BJ, the parts are produced in their green state, and infiltration
or even sintering post-processing is necessary

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)

➢ DED is an AM process in which a focused thermal energy source such as a laser or

electron beam or plasma arc is used to fuse materials by melting while they are
deposited

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
➢ DED is typically used for metallic parts; however, it can be used with polymers and
ceramics.
➢ The metallic material is fed through the nozzle in either powder or wire form. As it is
being deposited, the heat source melts the material simultaneously.
➢ This procedure is done repeatedly until the layers have solidified and created or
repaired an object.
➢ the applications for DED fall into three categories:
a. near net shape parts,
b. feature additions, and
c. repair.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
➢ The DED print quality depends upon several factors:
▪ Porosity: Internal defects in the deposited material lead to weak points that should
be minimized by drying the powder to keep moisture out and by the proper use of
shielding gas
▪ Scanning speed affects the size of the melt pool, the cooling rate, and
consequently, the grain structure
▪ The power provided by the energy source has a direct effect on the melt and is
related to the scan speed
▪ Energy transferred to the component must be sufficient to properly melt the host
material even as the DED printhead moves along the build path

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
Advantages
➢ Control of the grain structure, which makes it suitable for the repair of parts
➢ Production of large parts with minimal tooling
➢ Production of components with hybrid structures using multiple materials with
different compositions
Disadvantages
➢ Finish depends on the material used and may require post-finishing operations
➢ Material used is still relatively limited
➢ It requires a large initial investment to set up
➢ DED is relatively new; there is little standardization currently available

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
Laser metal deposition (LMD) ➢ LMD is an AM process combining high-power
laser and powder processing used for the
manufacture of high-precision near net shape
components from powders.
➢ The powder melts to form a deposit that is fusion-
bonded to the substrate.
➢ The required geometry is built up layer by layer.
➢ LMD enables the building of whole geometries or
the repair of an already existing but damaged
part.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
Laser metal deposition (LMD)
➢ During this process, a surface layer is created by means of melting and simultaneous
application of any given material.
➢ The laser usually heats the workpiece with a defocused laser beam and melts it
locally.
➢ At the same time, an inert gas, mixed with a fine metal powder, is introduced.
➢ The metal powder melts at the heated area and is then fused to the surface of the
workpiece.
➢ LMD has been used in high–value added aerospace and medical applications that
require the creation or repair of high-value or bespoke parts, especially those on a
larger scale.
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
Laser metal deposition (LMD)

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
Laser metal deposition (LMD) - advantages
➢ Achieves high building rates in comparison to other methods in AM
➢ Several powders can be conveyed and supplied at the same time, which makes it
possible to develop dedicated alloys or change the material
➢ Changes to the geometry are easily possible
➢ Used to repair tools or components, for example in the aerospace industry
➢ Achieves maximum speeds of several hundred meters/minute: high-speed laser metal
deposition (HS-LMD) reveals its strengths in the coating of brake disks
➢ Offers a low-heat, high-strength method of laser AM, minimizing dilution, heat effect
zones, and stress distortions
➢ Produces fully customized, functionally graded parts for demanding applications
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
Laser metal deposition (LMD) - advantages
➢ Highly precise and fast, allowing the creation of rough to very fine structures
➢ The material range is extensive, offering single-component metal powders, tungsten
carbides, and even composites
➢ Effective in fabrication, repair, welding, and cladding, making it a multipurpose
manufacturing process
➢ Bonds are truly metallurgical and not mechanical, making welds much stronger than
traditional welds or plating techniques

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
Laser metal deposition (LMD) - disadvantages
➢ Capital cost is very high
➢ Material price is also high
➢ The process is very complex, requiring trained operators
➢ The gradient nature of the microstructure produced by LMD can become an issue,
especially if the laser is not properly adjusted or materials do not play well
➢ Oxygen contamination is more common in LMD than in other laser-based AM
processes, increasing shield gas wastage and the risk of brittleness/part failure
➢ Surface finishes can be rough and porous

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Sheet lamination (SL)

➢ SL is used to produce colored parts in highly detailed resolution.

➢ a thin layered aluminum foil or paper-based filaments are cut into shaped layers

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Sheet lamination (SL)
➢ The layers are coated with adhesive and glued together layer by layer.
➢ SL uses a wide variety of material
▪ Paper is the most common, with pre-applied adhesive, where heat and pressure
are used to activate the adhesive layer
▪ Polymers use heat and pressure without the adhesive, since it relies on melting
the sheets together
▪ Metal sheets are bound using ultrasonic welding
▪ Fiber-based material and ceramic use thermal energy in the form of oven baking
to combine the layers together

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Sheet lamination (SL)
➢ SL typically consists of four steps
I. First, a thin sheet of the material is fed from the roller or placed onto the build
platform
II. Depending on the type of SL, the next layer may or may not be bonded to the
previous sheet
III. This process is continued until it completes all the layers to achieve the full
height of the part
IV. The print block is removed, and all the unwanted outer edges are removed to
reveal the printed 3D object

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Sheet lamination (SL)

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Sheet lamination (SL)

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Sheet lamination (SL)
Advantages
➢ Fast printing time
➢ Ease of material handling
➢ Relatively low cost
➢ No support structures are needed
➢ Large working area
➢ Full-color prints
➢ Multi-material layers are possible
➢ Cut material can be easily recycled

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Sheet lamination (SL)
Disadvantages
➢ Post-processing is required
➢ Finishes can vary depending on paper or plastic material
➢ Time-consuming and difficult to remove the excess material after the laminating
phase
➢ Hollow parts are difficult to produce in some types of sheet lamination processes
➢ Bonding strength depends on the laminating technique used
➢ Material waste is high if the part being made is smaller than the build area or the
sheet size
➢ Adhesive bonds are not good enough for long-term use of the product

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
➢ There are some restrictions regarding the geometries that can be built using AM.
➢ The layer-by-layer principle followed by AM machines has its limitations, since each
layer must be built directly above the previous one → not every geometry/shape is
possible to manufacture

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Overhanging geometries

➢ An overhanging geometry is any geometry whose orientation is not parallel to the

build vector.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Overhanging geometries
➢ The horizontal distance an AM machine can build without supports is limited, and if it
is exceeded, the whole build could fail.
➢ The limit of an overhang length is affected by the type of the AM process, the
material used, and the actual AM machine.
➢ The simplest way to resolve this is to replace horizontal overhangs with angled ones
➢ Some AM technologies can produce angled overhangs of a certain gradient, where
others cannot.
➢ When the angled overhang adaption is not feasible, due to the specifications and the
geometry of the part, a support structure needs to be introduced to support the
overhanging feature.
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Overhanging geometries

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Overhanging geometries
➢ For extrusion AM technologies, extreme angled overhangs cannot be created, as
material cannot be deposited in mid-air
➢ A bridge is a horizontal geometry between two or more non-horizontal features
➢ The designer must take into consideration the maximum length that the AM machine
can bridge; otherwise, the part will not be successfully manufactured.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Overhanging geometries
➢ Support methods are based on the following rules
▪ Avoid large-size holes parallel to the printing surface.
▪ Avoid surfaces with a large overhang angle.
▪ Avoid trapped surfaces where support materials are difficult or impossible to
remove.
▪ Optimize support structure to reduce the support material used.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Overhanging geometries
➢ The following design criteria are important for supports
▪ Supports should be able to prevent parts from collapse/warping, especially the
outer contour area, which needs support.
▪ The connection between the support and final parts should be of minimal strength
to perform the supporting function, with the aim of easily removing them through
post-finishing processes.
▪ The contact area between the support and the AM parts should be as small as
possible to reduce surface deterioration after support removal.
▪ The material consumption and build time should be considered as a significant
factors in designing
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Bores and channels

➢ Manufacturing internal bores that are impossible with traditional methods is feasible
with AM without additional cost
➢ The minimum bore channel diameter restrictions for different AM techniques are
shown in the next slide

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Bores and channels

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Wall thickness
➢ There is a minimum feasible wall thickness for each AM process due to the building
threshold determined by the AM machine diameter of laser beam and flow focal
point.
➢ Below the lower limit of the allowed thickness, the wall feature either cannot be
produced or when built, will suffer from deformation.
➢ An integer multiple of the fundamental tool path width must be used for the particular
design.
➢ If the width of the geometry that must be manufactured is not an integer multiple of
the fundamental tool path width, the slicer software must compensate for that issue.
➢ The height-to-thickness ratio is a critical design parameter for thin-walled structures
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Wall thickness

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Smallest features
➢ small features that challenge the ability of the AM machine when it comes down to
manufacturability.
➢ A 2D thin feature an AM machine can manufacture is usually described by the
diameter of the smallest possible pin.
➢ This aspect should be considered at the design phase, as it defines the detail that
can be introduced into the part.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Smallest features

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Layer thickness and build orientation
➢ Layer thickness is a factor that affects both the quality of the print and the build time
needed to complete the part.
▪ With smaller layer thickness, more detailed parts are produced, and the staircase
effect is minimized.
▪ with smaller layer thickness, potential voids and gaps are eliminated, as the CAD
file is sliced with more precision, and the geometrical accuracy is maintained.
▪ with thicker layers, the printing time is reduced.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Layer thickness and build orientation

➢ The slope angle is the major factor causing the staircase effect. As the slope angle
increases, the stair size is increased.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Layer thickness and build orientation

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Layer thickness and build orientation
➢ A proposed solution to the staircase problem is adaptive slicing → the areas where
details are needed are sliced with thin layer height, whereas areas whose quality will
not be affected are sliced with thicker layer height
➢ The build orientation is one of the most crucial AM process parameters.

(a) T part needs the most support in this

direction;
(b) T part needs less support than (a)
(c) T part does not need support in this
direction.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Anisotropy
➢ AM technologies produce parts with anisotropic mechanical properties → the
microstructure and mechanical properties generally differ along the substrate plane
and along the build direction
➢ The anisotropic behavior is due to the nature of the AM process, which can be
related to the lamellar nature, cylindrical extrusion shape, short fibers within the raw
material, and scaffold and lattice structures within the volume of the part.
➢ Post processing heat-treatment may reduce the anisotropy considerably
➢ The designed part should be oriented in such a way that the loads are received in the
direction in which the component has the greatest mechanical strength.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Anisotropy

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Tolerance quality

Achievable tolerances of traditional and AM processes

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Surface roughness

➢ The surface roughness after AM is not uniform throughout the entire printed surface.
➢ This due to the geometry’s slope angle and the unintentional sintering under angled
overhangs. Gaps resulting from insufficient planning for filling of the path also cause
surface roughness
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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Build time
➢ This is the total time required for an AM machine to manufacture a part.
➢ the material deposition speeds on the platform xy plane and the normal z axis are not
the same → larger speed on the xy axis than the speed at which the layers are
adding up in the z axis.
➢ Changing the build orientation affects the time needed for the AM machine to
complete the part.
➢ horizontally oriented parts will, in general, be printed faster than vertically oriented
ones.

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Additive Manufacturing (AM)
AM process techniques – Design aspects
Build time

Order of build time – Group C > Group B >Group A

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