Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering

Basics of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering

Lecture Notes
[Link] (I YEAR - I SEM)
(2025-26)
I Year [Link]. ECE SEM-I L T P C
3 0 0 3
Basics of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Course Objectives
The objective of this course is to expose students to the field of electrical and electronics
engineering and help them acquire fundamental knowledge. It provides a foundational
understanding of DC and AC electric circuits, circuit analysis techniques, transformers, and
semiconductor devices like diodes, BJTs, and FETs. The course equips students with the analytical
tools needed to solve circuit problems and introduces them to the operational principles of key
semiconductor devices used in electronic systems.

Course Outcomes
 CO1 Apply fundamental concepts and circuit laws to solve simple DC electric circuits.
 CO2 Implement the fundamental laws of electrical engineering for analyzing A.C. circuits.
 CO3 Apply the concepts on Semiconductor devices.
 CO4 To identify and characterize diodes and various types of BJT transistors.
 CO5 To analyze the various types of FET transistors

SYLLABUS:
Module 1: Elementary Concepts of Electric Circuits (9 hrs)
Basic Terminology including voltage, current and power, Resistances in series and parallel,
Capacitors in series and parallel and Inductors in series and parallel, Ohms Law and Kirchhoff's laws-
Problems.
Analysis of DC electric circuits: Mesh current method and Node voltage method, Numerical
problems.

Module 2: AC Circuits and Transformers (9 hrs)

Introduction of phasor representation of sinusoidal quantities: Peak, RMS values, Real power,
Reactive power, Apparent power and Power factor.
Analysis of simple AC circuits: Purely resistive, inductive & capacitive circuits.
Network Theorems: Super Position Theorem, Thevenin’s Theorem, Norton’s Theorem and
Maximum power transfer theory.
Single Phase Transformer: Construction, Working principle, Efficiency and applications

Module-3: P-N Junction Diode (9 hrs)

Introduction to P-N Junction, P-N Junction as a diode (Biasing of a Diode) , diode equation, Volt-
Ampere characteristics, temperature dependence of V-I characteristic, ideal versus practical -
resistance levels (static and dynamic), diode equivalent circuits, breakdown mechanisms in
semiconductor diodes, Diode as a Switch.
 BASICS OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

Module 4:
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) (9 hrs)
Principle of operation, Common Emitter, Common Base and Common Collector Configurations,
Transistor as a switch, switching times.
Module 5:
Junction Field Effect Transistor (FET): (9 hrs)
Construction, Principle of Operation, Pinch-Off Voltage, Volt-Ampere Characteristic, Comparison of
BJT and FET, FET as Voltage Variable Resistor, MOSFET, MOSTET as a capacitor

Text Book
1. D.P. Kothari, I J. Nagrath “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering” McGraw Hill
Education2nd Edition, Published, 2020.
2. Floyd and Jain, “Digital Fundamentals”, Pearson Education, 8th edition, 2009.

Reference Books
1. Del Toro V, “Electrical Engineering Fundamentals”, Pearson Education India 2nd edition,
published: 2015.
2. T. K. Nagsarkar, M. S. Sukhija, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Oxford University Press, 3 rd
edition, published: 2017.
3. Hayt W H, Kemmerly J E, and Durbin S M, “Engineering Circuit Analysis”, McGraw-Hill
education 8th edition, published: 2013.
Online Resources / Web Resources
1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]/
4. [Link]/
5. [Link]
Mooc/Nptel
1. [Link]
2. [Link]

SYLLABUS
 BASICS OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
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BIPOLAR JUNCTION
TRANSISTOR
Module-4

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR MODULE -4

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UNIT-4
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

SYLLABUS:
Principle of operation, Common Emitter, Common Base and Common Collector
configurations, Transistor as a switch, Switching times.

COURSE OUTCOME:

By the end of the unit, students will be able to Classify and distinguish the different configurations of a
Bipolar Junction Transistor

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

A Bipolar Junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device, constructed using
two diodes that are connected together to share one common semiconductor, either P or N.
Accordingly, two types of transistors can be developed by the way the two diodes are
connected together, viz. PNP and NPN transistors.
So Bipolar Junction Transistors are of two types

 NPN transistor or N-Transistor

 PNP transistor or P-Transistor

POSITION OF THE TERMINALS AND SYMBOL OF BJT:

• Base is located at the middle and more thin from the level of collector and emitter
• The emitter and collector terminals are made of the same type of semiconductor
material, while the base of the other type of material

TRANSISTOR CURRENTS

- The arrow is always drawn on the emitter

- The arrow always point toward the n-type
- The arrow indicates the direction of the emitter current:
pnp: E B
npn: B E

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IC=collector current
IB= base current
IE= emitter current

NPN Transistor
CONSTRUCTION (Example Q: Explain the Construction of an NPN transistor)

 NPN transistor is constructed by sandwiching a P-type semiconductor between two

N- type semiconductors.
 One terminal from each semiconductor is derived, thus the transistor will have
three terminals.
 The three terminals of the transistor are named Emitter, Base, and Collector.
 Emitter and Collector terminals are derived from the same type of semiconductors
and the Base terminal is made of a different or opposite semiconductor.
 In an NPN transistor Emitter and Collector terminals are derived from the N-type
semiconductors and the Base comes from a P-type semiconductor.
 Emitter terminal is taken out of a heavily doped N-type semiconductor while
Collector is derived from a moderately doped N-type semiconductor.
 The P-type semiconductor of Base is very lightly doped. Thus, the base
semiconductor forms two PN junctions, one with Emitter (N-type) semiconductor
and the other with Collector (N-type) semiconductor.

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 In NPN transistors, the majority charge carriers are electrons and thus
conduction is carried out by the flow of electrons from the Emitter to the Collector.

WORKING OF NPN TRANSISTOR (Example Q: Define Active, saturation,

and Cut-off regions of the transistor)
 The transistor operates when its Emitter-Base and Base-Collector junctions are biased.
 Depending on the voltages applied to the junctions, the transistor can be operated
in three different regions
 Active Region: Where the Emitter–Base junction is forward-biased and the
Base- Collector junction is reverse-biased.
 Transistor works as an amplifier when operated under the active region.

 Saturation Region: When both Emitter-Base and Base-Collector junctions are

forward biased transistor will go into saturation.
 Under saturation, the transistor acts as a short circuit (ON) switch as electric
current flows through the transistor with both junctions forward-biased.

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 Cut-off Region: Emitter-Base and Base-collector Junctions are both reverse-biased.

 No current will flow through the transistor as both junctions are reverse-biased and
the transistor acts like an open (OFF) switch.
 Most of the applications of the transistor require it to be operated in the active region.

TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS:

Bipolar Junction Transistors can be operated in

 Common Base (CB) Configuration

 Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
 Common Collector (CC) Configuration

COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION (Example Q: Explain the input and

output characteristics of a transistor in Common Base configuration)

 In a common base configuration, the emitter is the input terminal, the collector is the
output terminal, and the base terminal is connected as a common terminal for both
input and output.
 That means the emitter terminal and common base terminal are known as input
terminals whereas the collector terminal and common base terminal are known as
output terminals.

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 In common base configuration, the base terminal is grounded so the common base
configuration is also known as grounded base configuration. Sometimes common
base configuration is referred to as common base amplifier, CB amplifier, or CB
configuration.

 The input signal is applied between the emitter and base terminals while the
corresponding output signal is taken across the collector and base terminals.
 Thus, the base terminal of a transistor is common for both input and output terminals
and hence it is named Common Base Configuration.
 The supply voltage between the base and emitter is denoted by VBEwhile the supply
voltage between collector and base is denoted by VCB.
 The Base-Emitter junction JEis forward biased by the supply voltage VBEand the
Collector-Base junction JCis reverse biased by VCB.
 Due to the forward bias voltage VBE, the free electrons (majority carriers) in the
emitter region experience a repulsive force from the negative terminal of the battery
similarly holes (majority carriers) in the base region experience a repulsive force from
the positive terminal of the battery.
 As a result, free electrons start flowing from emitter to base similarly holes start flowing
from base to emitter leading to electric current.
 The actual current is carried by free electrons which are flowing from the emitter to the
base. However, we follow the conventional current direction which is from base to
emitter. Thus, electric current is produced at the base and emitter region.
 Only a small percentage of free electrons from the emitter region will combine with the
holes in the base region and the remaining large number of free electrons cross the base
region and enter into the collector region.
 A large number of free electrons which entered into the collector region will experience
an attractive force from the positive terminal of the battery.
 Therefore, the free electrons in the collector region will flow toward the positive terminal
of the battery. Thus, electric current is produced in the collector region.
 The electric current produced at the collector region is primarily due to the free electrons
from the emitter region similarly the electric current produced at the base region is also
primarily due to the free electrons from the emitter region.
 Thus the emitter current can be considered as the sum of base current and collector
current.
IE=IB+ IC

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 We know that the emitter current is the input current and the collector current is the
output current. The output collector current is less than the input emitter current, so
the current gain of this amplifier is actually less than 1.
 As the input Emitter-Base junction is forward biased and the output Collector-Base
junction is reverse biased, therefore, the common base amplifier provides a low
input impedance and high output impedance.
 Transistors with low input impedance and high output impedance provide a high
voltage gain.

 When the Emitter-base junction is forward-biased, electrons from the N-type emitter
start moving to the base as the width of the E-B junction decreases with the increase
in Emitter-base Voltage (VBE).
 The electron movement is accelerated by the VBEvoltage. As Collector is connected
to the positive terminal of the battery it will attract the Emitter electrons and thus
Current starts flowing through the transistor.
 Thus, one can say that the Collector-Base voltage VCB(reverse bias) also contributes
to the Emitter electron movement.
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
 A graph plotted between the input Voltage (VBE) and input current IE describes the
input characteristics of the transistor.
 To determine the input characteristics, the output voltageCB (collector-base voltage)
is kept constant at zero volts and the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts
to different voltage levels. 
 For each voltage level of the input voltage (VBE), the input current (IE) is recorded.
 A curve is then drawn between input current I E and input voltage VBE at constant
output voltage VCB (0 volts).

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 This process is repeated for different values of output voltage V CB and every
time the input current values for different input voltages should be recorded.
 When VCB= 0V, the Emitter-Base junction behaves like a normal PN junction diode
with cut-in voltage starting at 0.7V. Thus, the curve rises to maximum after the cut-
in voltage.
 When VCB> 0V, i.e., Collector terminal is positive compared to the other terminals,
it will accelerate the emitter electron movement and thus (I E) current will result in
the input junction even before the VBE cut-in voltage. Thus, the characteristics shift
towards the left.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
 The relation between the output voltage VCBapplied to the output (Base-Collector)
Junction and the output Current ICflowing through it is described by the output
characteristics.

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 Since in a Bipolar Junction Transistor, the Emitter current (IE) is the sum of the
Base (IB) current and the Collector (IC) current. Thus, to plot the output
characteristics the input current (IE) has to be kept constant.
 Now the output current (IC) values for different values of the output voltages (V CB)
should be noted. This procedure has to be repeated by keeping I Econstant at
different values.
 From the characteristics it can be observed that the output current (IC) increases
initially with the increase in the output voltage (VCB) till it becomes equal to the
constant input current (IE) value.
 Thus, BJT is called a current-controlled device as the output current (IC) is
controlled by the input current (IE).
Transistor Parameters: (Example Q: Define the various parameters of the transistor
in Common Base Configuration)
The performance of a transistor in a particular configuration can be analyzed by the following
four parameters

 Input Impedance (Zib): Defines the ratio of the input voltage (VBE) and input
current (IE) with the output voltage (VCB) kept constant. Units are ohm(Ω).

𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝑩𝑬
Ω
𝒊 𝑬 𝑽𝑪𝑩=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

 Current Amplification factor (Aib): It is the ratio of the Output current (IC) flowing
through the transistor to the input current (IE) measured by keeping output voltage
(VCB) constant. The Common Base Current gain is also denoted using α (Alpha)

𝑵𝒐 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝒊 𝑬 𝑽𝑪𝑩=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

 Reverse Voltage gain (Avb): The ratio of the input voltage (VBE) to the output
voltage (VCB) of the transistor with input current (IE) kept constant is defined as
the reverse voltage gain. 
𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝑵𝒐 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝑶 𝑪𝑩 𝑰𝑬=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

 Output Admittance (Y0): The ratio of output current (IC) to the output voltage
(VCB) obtained by keeping the input current (IE) of the transistor constant is known
as Output Impedance. Units are mho (Ʊ)
𝑰𝑶 𝑰𝑪
Ʊ
𝑶 𝑪𝑩 𝑰𝑬=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

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Applications of Common Base Configuration

(Example Q: Mention the applications of a Common Base Transistor.)

 It is commonly used for amplifiers that require low input impedance, such as
microphones.
 It is used in very high and ultra-high frequency amplifier configurations because it
performs better at high frequencies. It is due to the input-output impedance and the high
voltage amplifications.
 It is used for impedance matching. If the circuit has high input resistance, the common
base provides it with the low output resistance. It is known as impedance matching.

Early Effect or Base Width Modulation

(Example Q: What is Early effect or Base width modulation? What is
reach through?)
 When operated in the active region, the Emitter-Base Junction of the transistor will be
forward biased, while the Collector-Base junction will be reverse biased.
 When the input (forward bias) voltage VBE is increased, the width of the Emitter-Base
PN junction decreases. 
 Increase in the (reverse bias) output voltage VCB, will increase the width of the
Collector-Base PN junction.
 If the output voltage VCB applied to the collector-base junction JC is further increased,
the depletion region width further increases. 
 The base region is lightly doped as compared to the collector region. So, the depletion
region penetrates more into the base region and less into the collector region.
 As a result, the width of the base region decreases. This dependency of base width on
the output voltage (VCB) is known as an Early effect or Base width Modulation.
 If the output voltage VCBapplied to the collector-base junction JCis highly increased, the
base width may be reduced to zero and causes a voltage breakdown in the transistor. This
phenomenon is known as Reach through or Punch through.

COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION: (Example Q: Explain the input and

output characteristics of transistor in Common Emitter Configuration)
 In Common Emitter Configuration, Emitter terminal is used as the common terminal and
is grounded. Base is treated as the input terminal while Collector is considered as the
output terminal. 

 In common emitter (CE) configuration, input current or base current is denoted by

IB and output current or collector current is denoted by I C. 

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INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

 The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current
(IB) and input voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE).
 Input characteristics are plotted with the input current or base current (I B) taken along y-
axis (vertical line) and the input voltage (VBE) taken along x-axis (horizontal line).
 To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage V CEis kept constant at zero
volts and the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
 For each voltage level of input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is
recorded.

 A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBE at constant
output voltage VCE (0 volts).
 Next, the output voltage (VCE) is increased from zero volts to a certain voltage level
(10 volts), and the output voltage (VCE) is kept constant at 10 volts.
 While increasing the output voltage (VCE), the input voltage (VBE) is kept constant at
zero volts. After we kept the output voltage (VCE) constant at 10 volts, the input
voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
 For each voltage level of input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is
recorded.
 A curve is then drawn between input current I B and input voltage VBE at constant output
voltage VCE (10volts). This process is repeated for higher fixed values of output voltage
(VCE).
 When output voltage (VCE) is at zero volts and emitter-base junction is forward biased
by input voltage (VBE), the emitter-base junction acts like a normal p-n junction diode.
 So, the input characteristics of the CE configuration are same as the characteristics of a
normal PN junction diode.
 The cut in voltage of a silicon transistor is 0.7 volts and germanium transistor is 0.3 volts.
In our case, it is a silicon transistor.
 So, from the above graph, we can see that after 0.7 volts, a small increase in input
voltage (VBE) will rapidly increase the input current (I B).
 In common emitter (CE) configuration, the input current (I B) is produced in the base
region which is lightly doped and has small width. So, the base region produces only a 
small input current (IB).

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 On the other hand, in common base (CB) configuration, the input current (I E) is
produced in the emitter region which is heavily doped and has large width. So, the
emitter region produces a large input current (I E).
 Therefore, the input current (IB) produced in the common emitter (CE) configuration is
small as compared to the common base (CB) configuration.
 Due to forward bias, the emitter-base junction acts as a forward-biased diode, and due to
reverse bias, the collector-base junction acts as a reverse-biased diode.
 Therefore, the width of the depletion region at the emitter-base junction is very small
whereas the width of the depletion region at the collector-base junction is very large.
 If the output voltage VCEapplied to the collector-base junction is further increased, the
depletion region width further increases. 
 The base region is lightly doped as compared to the collector region. So, the depletion
region penetrates more into the base region and less into the collector region.
 As a result, the width of the base region decreases which in turn reduces the input current
(IB) produced in the base region. 
 From the above characteristics, we can see that for higher fixed values of output voltage
VCE, the curve shifts to the right side. This is because for higher fixed values of output
voltage, the cut in voltage is increased above 0.7 volts.
 Therefore, to overcome this cut in voltage, more input voltage V BEis needed than
previous case.

OUTPUT CHARATERISTICS:

 The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current (IC) and
output voltage (VCE).
 In the output characteristics graph the output current or collector current (IC) is taken
along y-axis (vertical line) and the output voltage (VCE) is taken along x-axis
(horizontal line).
 To determine the output characteristics, the input current or base current IB is kept
constant at 0 μA and the output voltage VCE is increased from zero volts to different
voltage levels.
 For each level of output voltage, the corresponding output current (IC) is recorded.

Fig: O/P Characteristics of CE Configuration

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A curve is then drawn between output current I C and output voltage VCE at constant
input current IB (0 μA).
 When the base current or input current I B= 0 μA, the transistor operates in the cut-off
region. In this region, both junctions are reverse-biased.
 Next, the input current (IB) is increased from 0 μA to 20 μA by adjusting the input
voltage (VBE). The input current (IB) is kept constant at 20 μA.
 While increasing the input current (IB), the output voltage (VCE) is kept constant at 0
volts.
 After we kept the input current (IB) constant at 20 μA, the output voltage (VCE) is
increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage level of output
voltage (VCE), the corresponding output current (IC) is recorded.
 A curve is then drawn between the output current I Cand output voltage VCEat
constant input current IB (20 μA). This region is known as the active region of a
transistor. In this region, the emitter-base junction is forward-biased and the collector-
base junction is reverse-biased.
 These steps are repeated for higher fixed values of input current IB (i.e.,40 μA,
60μA,80 μA, and so on).
 When output voltage VCEis reduced to a small value (0.2 V), the collector-base
junction becomes forward-biased. This is because the output voltage VCEhas less
effect on the collector-base junction than the input voltage VBE.
 As we know that the emitter-base junction is already forward biased. Therefore, when
both the junctions are forward biased, the transistor operates in the saturation region.
 In this region, a small increase in output voltage VCEwill rapidly increases the output
current IC.
TRANSISTOR CURRENT EQUATION:

As the total current flowing in the transistor is due to minority charge carriers and majority
charge carriers, the overall current equation of the transistor can be given as

IC=βIB+(1+β)ICB0

Where β is the current gain of CE configuration, base current IB is the current due to
majority charge carriers and ICBO is the minority charge carrier current flowing through
the reverse biased collector-base junction.

Transistor Parameters:

Dynamic input resistance (ri)

Dynamic input resistance is defined as the ratio of change in input voltage or base
voltage(VBE) to the corresponding change in input current or base current (IB), with the
output voltage or collector voltage (VCE) kept at constant. Units are Ohms

𝑽 ∆𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝒊 = ( ∆𝑰 ) Ω
𝑩
𝑹𝒊 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑰𝒊

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In CE configuration, the input resistance is very low.

Dynamic output resistance (ro)

Dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage or collector
voltage (VCE) to the corresponding change in output current or collector current (I C), with
the input current or base current (IB) kept at constant. Units are Ohms

𝑪𝑬
Ω
𝑰𝟎 ∆𝑰𝒄 𝑰𝑩=𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

In CE configuration, the output resistance is high.

Current gain (β)

The current gain of a transistor in CE configuration is defined as the ratio of output current
or collector current (IC) to the input current or base current (IB) keeping the output voltage
(VCE) constant.

𝑰 𝑰𝑪
𝑶 =( ) 𝑵𝒐 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝑨𝒊𝒃 = 𝜷 = 𝑰𝑩 𝑽𝑪𝑬=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑰𝒊

Voltage Gain (AV)

It is defined as the ratio of the output voltage (VCE) to the input Voltage (VBE) applied to
the transistor by keeping the input current (I B) constant.

No Units
𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝑰𝑩 =constant

Applications of Common Emitter Configuration:

1. These are preferably used as the current amplifiers than as voltage amplifiers as
they have more current gain values than the voltage gain.
2. In the radio frequency circuitry this configuration is preferred.
3. For the lower values of noise and its amplification this configuration is preferred.

Relation between Current Gains α (Common Base) & β (Common Emitter): (Example Q:
Derive the relation between α and β current gains of the transistor.) The
Current Gain in Common Base Configuration is given as
𝑰𝑪
𝜶=
𝑰𝑬
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Current Gain of Common Emitter Configuration is

𝑰𝑪
𝜷=
𝑰𝑩

From the relation between the currents of the transistor

𝐈𝐄=𝐈𝐁+𝐈𝐂

𝐈𝐁=𝐈𝐄−𝐈𝐂

𝐈𝐁=𝐈𝐄−𝛂𝐈𝐄

𝐈𝐁=(𝟏−𝜶)𝐈𝐄

𝜷
Similarly, 𝜶=
𝜷+𝟏

Example Problems:

1. The Value of α of a p-n-p transistor is 0.99. Calculate the value of current gain in
Common Emitter Configuration.

Sol: As we know the current gain β in Common Emitter Configuration is given as

𝛃= 𝜶
(𝟏 −𝜶)

Thus 𝛼 0.99
β= = =99
(1−𝛼) 1−0.99

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2. [Link] around
100 µA,
find the collector current flowing through the transistor.

Sol: Given
Emitter Current IE=20mA

Base Current IB= 100µA= 0.1x1000µA= 0.1mA

As we know relation between transistor currents
IE=IB+IC

Thus, IC=IE– IB =20mA-0.1 mA =19.9 mA

Hence IC=19.9 mA

COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION (Example Q: Explain the input and

output characteristics of transistor in Common Collector Configuration.)

 In Common Emitter Configuration, Emitter terminal is used as the common terminal

and is grounded. Base is treated as the input terminal while Collector is considered
as the output terminal.

 Common Collector Configuration is also known as Emitter Follower Configuration.

 The input supply voltage between base and collector is denoted by VBC while
the output voltage between emitter and collector is denoted by VEC.
 In this configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB and
output current or emitter current is denoted by IE.
 The common collector amplifier has high input impedance and low output
impedance. It has low voltage gain and high current gain.

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INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
 The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base
current (IB) and input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC) by keeping output
voltage (VEC) constant.
 To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage VEC is kept constant at
3Vand the input voltage VBC is increased from zero volts to different voltage
levels.
 For each level of input voltage VBC,the corresponding input current IB is noted. A
curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBC at constant
output voltage VEC (3V).
 This procedure is repeated for different constant values of output voltage VEC.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

 Plotted between output Voltage VEC and output current IE by keeping input current IB
constant.
 To determine the output characteristics, the input current IB is kept constant at zero
micro amperes and the output voltage VEC is increased from zero volts to different
voltage levels.
 For each level of output voltage VEC, the corresponding output current IEis noted. A
curveis then drawn between output current IE and output voltage VEC at constant input
current IB (0 μA).
 This procedure is repeated for different incremental values of input (base) current
IBand thus the characteristics are plotted

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Fig: O/P Characteristics of CC Configuration

Transistor Parameters:
Input Resistance (Ri)
Dynamic input resistance is defined as the ratio of change in input voltage or base voltage
(VBC) to the corresponding change in input current or base current (IB), with the output
voltage or emitter voltage (VEC) kept at constant.

𝑽𝑩𝑪
Ω
𝒊 𝑩 𝑽𝑬𝑪=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Output Resistance (Ro)

Dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage or emitter
voltage (VEC) to the corresponding change in output current or emitter current (IE), with
the input current or base current (IB) kept at constant.

𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝑬𝑪
Ω
𝒐 𝑰𝑩=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Current Gain/Amplification factor (Ai)

The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of change in output current or emitter
current IE to the change in input current or base current IBwith the output voltage
VECkept constant. It is denoted by γ.

𝑨𝒊 = 𝜸 = 𝑵𝒐 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝑰 𝑩𝑽𝑬𝑪=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

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Voltage Gain (AV)

The ratio of change in the output voltage VEC for a corresponding change in the input voltage
VBCwhen the input current IBis maintained constant.
𝑽𝑬𝑪
𝑵𝒐 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝑽𝑩𝑪 𝑰𝑩=𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Applications of Common Collector Configuration:

 This configuration is used in impedance matching circuits.
 It is used as a switching circuit.
 The high current gain combined with near-unity voltage gain makes this circuit a
great voltage buffer.
 It is also used for circuit isolation

COMPARISON OF TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

(Example Q: Compare CB,CE and CC configurations of a transistor.)

S. Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

No. Configuration Configuration Configuration
Emitter is the Common Collector is the Common
1 Base is the Common terminal
Terminal terminal
Emitter terminal is input and Base terminal is the input Base terminal is input and
2 Collector is the output and Collector is the output Emitter is the output
terminal Terminal terminal
Also called grounded-Base Also called grounded- Also called grounded-
3
configuration Emitter configuration Collector configuration.

𝑰 𝑰 𝑰
Current Gain(𝜶)= 𝑪 Current Gain(𝜷)= 𝑪 Current gain(𝜸)= 𝑬
5
𝑰𝑬 𝑰𝑩 𝑰𝑩
6 Very low input resistance Moderate input resistance High input resistance

7 Very high output resistance Moderate/High output Low output resistance

Resistance

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8 Current gain is less than unity Current gain is High Current gain is very high

9 Volage gain is high Voltage gain is high Voltage gain is less than
unity

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TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

(Example Q: Explain the working of a transistor as a switch)

Cut Off Region:

 When both the Emitter-Base and Collector-Base junctions of BJT are reverse biased,
input (Base) current (IB) will be zero, hence the output (Collector) current (I C) becomes
zero.
 Widthofthedepletionregionsincreasewiththeincreaseinthereversebiasvoltagesand thus
no current flows through transistor.
 Hence, the transistor can be considered as Open Switch i.e., fully– off.

Cut-off Region (Open switch) Characteristics:

 The input terminal is connected to ground so it is maintained at zero potential.

 VBE is less that cut –in voltage 0.7 V.
 Both Emitter– Base junction and Collector– Base junction are reverse biased.
 The transistor is fully–off acting as open switch.
 The collector current IC=0A and output voltage Vout=VCC.

Saturation Region –
 Both the Emitter-Base and Collector Base junctions of the BJT are forward biased.
 Base current will increase leading to an increase in the Output Collector Current.
 Duetoforwardbiasingofthejunctionsthewidthofdepletionlayerswillbesmall
caus
ing minimum Collector – Emitter voltage drop.
 Thus, current flowing through the transistor will be maximum, and the transistor can
be operated as Closed Switch i.e. fully – ON.

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Saturation Region (Closed Switch) Characteristics:

 Input is connected toVCC.

 Base– Emitter voltage is greater than cut– in voltage (0.7V).
 Both the Base–Emitter junction and Base–Collector junction are forward biased.
 The transistor is fully – ON and operates as a closed switch.
 Collector current is maximum and can be given as 𝐈𝐂=𝐕𝐂𝐂
𝐑𝐋

TRANSISTOR SIWITCHING TIMES

(Example Q: What are the different switching times of the transistor? Explain
them with necessary waveforms.)

 Switching times of the transistor describe the time taken by the transistor to switch
between the OFF and the ON States.
 The transistor switching times are defined by applying a pulse of duration T at the
input of the transistor.
 When the input pulse is applied, it takes some time for the transistor (collector)
current to reach the steady state value, due to the presence of stray capacitances at
the junctions of the transistor.

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 From the above figure we can observe that the output current of the transistor
is starting after sometime (t d)of the application of the input pulse. 
 Time delay (td) −The time taken by the collector current to reach from its initial
value to 10% of its final value is called as the Time Delay.
 Rise time (tr)−The time taken for the collectorcurrent to reach from 10% of its
initial value to 90% of its final value is called as the Rise Time.
 Turn-on time (TON) − The sum of time delay (td) and rise time (tr) is called as
Turn- on time.

TON= td+ tr

 Storage time (ts) − The time interval between the trailing edge of the input
pulse tothe 90% of the maximum value of the output, is called as the Storage time.

 Fall time (tf)− The time taken for the collector current to reach from 90%
ofits maximum value to 10% of its initial value is called as the Fall Time.
 Turn-off time (TOFF)− The sum of storage time (ts) and fall time (tf) is defined as the
Turn-off time.

TOFF= ts+ tf

 PulseWidth(W)−Thetimedurationoftheoutputpulsemeasuredbetweentwo50%
le
vels of rising and falling waveform is defined as Pulse Width.

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TOPIC BEYOND SYLLABUS

Transistor as an Amplifier:
 One of the key characteristics of a transistor is that it can be used as an amplifier.
 Transistors can act as amplifiers while they are functioning in the active region or
when they are correctly biased.
 The need for a transistor as an amplifier arises when we want to increase or
amplify the input signal.
 A transistor can take in a very (low amplitude) weak signal through the base
junction and release the amplified signal through the collector.
 For a transistor to work as an amplifier, we usually use the common-
emitter configuration.
 The figure below shows how the transistor is set up when it is connected to a circuit
as an amplifier.

 From the above figure, it is clear that on the output side, V0= VCC – ICRC, where
V0is the output voltage, ICis the collector current, RC is the load resistance, and Vcc
is the constant bias voltage.
 If we consider ∆V0 and ∆Vi as small changes in output and input voltages,
respectively, then ∆V0 / ∆Vi is called the small-signal voltage gain, Av of the
amplifier. 

 Therefore, ∆V0=0–RC∆IC
 Thegainintermsofvoltagewhenthechangesininputandoutputcurrentsareobserved is
called voltage gain.

Similarly, in the input side,

 Vin=IB RB+VBE

Or

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 ∆Vin =∆IBRB+∆VBE ~∆Vin=∆IBRB (∆VBE<<∆IBRB)

Or
 Av=∆V0 /∆Vin=–
RC∆IC/RB∆IB=- βacRC/RBwhere βac= ∆IC /
∆IBis the AC current gain. 

 When there is again in terms of current due to the changes in input and output
currents, it is called current gain. β value can range between 20 and 500. 

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