Class Notes - Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychologists are interested in common patterns of

development and growth and the way in which people differ
throughout the lifespan.

Continuity and Discontinuity

 Developmental stages are periods during which physical or

psychological functioning differs qualitatively from that of
either earlier or later periods.
 A critical period is a sensitive time in organism's development
when organism may acquire particular behavior conditional on
the occurrence of certain stimuli and events.

Nature and Nurture

 Nature-nurture controversy - long-standing debate over

relative importance of heredity and learning in many aspects of
functioning.
 John Locke, British philosopher, believed that human infants
born without knowledge or skills.
 Jean Rousseau, French philosopher, argued that we bring into
our world our evolutionary legacy.

Research Designs

 Normative investigations - specific age or stage of

development.
 Longitudinal design - observe and test same individuals over
long period of time.
 Cross-sectional design - Subject groups different ages
observed and immediately compared to each other.
Sequential design - subjects spanning specific, short-age
range repeatedly observed over time.

Data Collection

 Habituation - basic response process where familiar sights,

sounds or tastes no longer demand attention.
Dishabituation - infant responds to new stimulus, revealing
that perceive it to be different and novel.

Physical Aspects of Development

Development begins at conception when sperm cells unite with the
ovum.

 23 chromosomes from each parent unite at conception to form

zygote.
 Period from conception to birth called the prenatal period.

Stages of Prenatal Development

 Stage of zygote - shortest, from conception until

approximately 2 wks later.
o Ovum usually fertilized in one of fallopian tubes.
o Zygote takes 7 days move down fallopian tubes to
uterus
o Zygote takes another 7 days to be firmly implanted in
wall of uterus.
 Stage of embryo - lasts 6 weeks, from week 2 to week eight.
o At Beginning three types of cells can be differentiated.
 Some become the nervous system
 Some will become internal organs
 Others become muscles, skeleton, and blood
vessels.
o Unborn organism most sensitive to external or
environmental influences.
 Stage of fetus - longest, lasting until birth.
o Organs grow and begin functioning
o Arms and legs move by end of third month
o By 7 month reaches viability - can survive if born
prematurely.
o Fetus ready to be born at about 270 days.

Environmental Influences On Prenatal Development

 During rapid stage prenatal development, even small

environmental disturbances can have serious and lasting
consequences.
 Maternal malnutrition - increases in miscarriages, stillbirths,
and premature births.
o Deficiencies in specific vitamins and minerals
o Calcium deficiencies -- development of bones and teeth
in fetus
o Nutrient deficiencies may adversely affect mother.
 Drugs and chemicals
o Smoking by mother - low birth-weight, hearing defects
o Smoking mother may have more miscarriages,
stillbirths, and babies who die soon after birth than
 mothers who do not smoke.
o Alcohol - heavy drinking increases probability of
having smaller babies and babies with retarded
physical growth, poor coordination, poor muscle tone,
and intellectual retardation; collectively these are called
fetal alcohol syndrome.
 FAS leading preventable cause of birth defects
leading to mental retardation.
 Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimates
8,000 babies born with FAS every year in US.
 Total abstinence from alcohol during pregnancy
best advice.
o Psychoactive drugs such as heroin and/or cocaine
 Babies may be born addicted leading to painful
withdrawal and hospital stay averaging 42 days.
 Low birth weight, difficult regulating
sleep/waking cycles, and symptoms of FAS.
o Drugs should be used with great care and only after
consulting with physician.
 Tetracycline taken during pregnancy colors
fetal bones and teeth yellow.
 Even aspirin become suspect as potential
complications.
 Maternal stress causes hormone changes and reduces oxygen
available to fetus.
 Role of father
o one third Down's syndrome babies result from
difficulties with sperm
o Undernourishment, alcohol or drug abuse, or stress in
father near time of conception may have developmental
consequences on child.

Motor Development

 First two weeks of life newborn referred to as neonate.

 Neonate capable wide range behaviors
o Reflexes
o Useful purpose
o More than dozen reflexes in neonate.

All human senses function at birth -- Infants focus on objects at 1 or 2

feet; visual acuity shows 3 to fourfold improvement during first year.

 Perception of Depth and Distance

o "Visual Cliff" used to test depth perception in young
children
 o Even 6 month old children not venture over deep side,
even to get their mothers...
 Neonates hear very well
o Sound localization - 3 to 10 minutes after birth
o Respond to differences in pitches and loudness.
o 3 day old newborns discriminate sound mother's voice.
 Newborns respond to differences in taste and smell
o discriminate between the four basic taste qualities,
preferring sweet-tasting liquids.
o Sense of smell may develop before birth

Cognitive and Social Development

 Neonates engage in simple learning tasks

o Learn through classical conditioning
o Head turning and sucking movements brought under
control through operant conditioning
 Friedman demonstrated memory in neonates 1 to 4 days old -
using habituation method.
 Robert Frantz -
o Babies prefer look at more complex patterns
o Neonates show preference for drawing of human face

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Centers on acquiring schemas ... Processes for organizing and forming

mental representations

 Assimilation - taking in new information and fitting it into

existing schemas
Accommodation - changing and revising existing schema in
face of new experiences or new information.

Stages of Cognitive Development

 Sensorimotor stage (0 to 24 months) discover by sensing and

doing.
o Causality important schemas learned
o Object permanence develops
 Preoperational stage (2 to 6 years) thinking is self-centered or
egocentric.
o Begin to use symbols - usually words
o Do not understand how to manipulate symbols
o Animistic thinking - imagining inanimate objects
having life and mental processes
o Centration - too focused on single perceptual quality to
 notice or understand event.
 Concrete operations stage (7 to 12 years) begin develop many
concepts and show they can manipulate concepts
o Conservation develops
o Begin operate - use and manipulate - on concepts and
ideas

Formal operations stage ( over 12 years) abstract, symbolic

reasoning, and ability deal with hypothetical problems
develop.

Piaget’s Phases of Cognitive

Development
PHASE AGE

Sensory organs & m

a. Sensorimotor Birth to 2 yrs functional

Birth to 1
Stage 1: Use of reflexes month Movements are pri

Perceptions center
Objects are perceiv
Stage 2: Primary circular reaction 1-4 months

Becomes aware of
Initiates acts to cha
Stage 3: Secondary circular reaction 4-8 months

Stage 4: Coordination of secondary Differentiates goals

schemata 8-12 months activities.

Experiments with m
Develops rituals th
Stage 5: Tertiary circular reaction 12-18 months

Uses mental image

environment.
Uses fantasy.
Stage 6: Invention of new means 18-24 months

b. Pre-operational 2-7 years Emerging ability to

Pre-conceptual stage 2-4 year Thinking tends to b

 Exhibits use of sym

Unable to break do
parts.
Able to classify obj
Intuitive stage 4-7 years

Learns to reason ab
c. Concrete Operations 7-11 years now.

Able to see relation

d. Formal Operations 11+ years abstract.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral

Development
LEVEL AND STAGE DESCRIPTION

LEVEL I: Pre-conventional Authority figures are obeyed.

(Birth to 9 years) Misbehavior is viewed in terms of damage

Stage 1: Punishment & obedience A deed is perceived as “wrong” if one is pu

orientation “right” if one is not punished.

“Right” is defined as that which is acceptab

self.
Stage 2: Instrumental-relativist When actions satisfy one’s needs, they are
orientation

LEVEL II: Conventional Cordial interpersonal relationships are main

(9-13 years) Approval of others is sought through one’s

Stage 3: Interpersonal concordance Authority is respected.

Individual feels “duty bound” to maintain s

Behavior is “right” when it conforms to the
Stage 4: Law and order orientation

Individual understands the morality of havi

LEVEL III: Post-conventional established laws.
 (13+ years)

Stage 5: Social contract orientation It is “wrong” to violate others’ rights.

The person understands the principles of hu

conscience.
Stage 6: Universal ethics Person believes that trust is basis for relatio
orientation

Gilligan’s Theory of Moral

Development
LEVEL CHARACTERISTI

Concentrates on what is best for self.

Selfish.

I. Orientation of Individual Dependent on others.

Survival Transition

Recognizes connections to others.

Transition 1: From Selfishness to Makes responsible choices in terms of self a
Responsibility

Puts needs of others ahead of own.

Feels responsible for others.

Is dependent.

May use guilt to manipulate others when atte

II. Goodness as Self-sacrifice

Decisions based on intentions & consequenc

Considers needs of self and others.

Wants to help others while being responsible

Transition 2: From Goodness to Increased social participation.

Truth

III. Morality of Nonviolence Sees self and others as morally equal

 Assumes responsibilities for own decisions.

Basic tenet to hurt no one including self.

Conflict between selfishness and selflessnes

Self-judgment is not dependent on others’ pe

consequences & intentions of actions.

Fowler’s Stages of Faith

STAGE AGE

Pre-stage: Infant Trust, hope and love compe

Undifferentiated faith inconsistencies or threats if

Imitates parental behaviors

and spirituality.
Stage 1: Intuitive- Toddler-preschooler Has no real understanding o
projective faith

Accepts existence of a deity

Religious & moral beliefs a

Appreciates others’ viewpo

Stage 2: Mythical-literal School-aged child Accepts concept of reciproc

faith

Stage 3: Synthetic- Adolescent Questions values & religiou

conventional faith form own identity.

Late adolescent &

Stage 4: Individuative- young adult
reflective faith Assumes responsibility for

Adult Integrates other perspective

Stage 5: Conjunctive faith definition of truth.

Stage 6: Universalizing Adult

faith Makes concepts of love & j
Kohlberg's Stage Theory Moral Development

 Consists of six stages of development

o Preconventional level very rule focused
o Conventional level - blind acceptance social
convention and need for social approval
o Postconventional stage reflects complex, internalized
standards
 Carol Gilligan challenges Kohlberg's data.
o Moral reasoning in females different from males
o Males concerned with rules, justice, and individual
rights
Females concerned with caring, personal responsibility,
and interpersonal relationships.

Erik Erikson - Psychosocial, stage theory of development

 Lists eight stages of development covering entire life span:

o trust/mistrust -
o autonomy/doubt -
o initiative/guilt -
o industry/inferiority -
o identity/role confusion – 88

o intimacy/isolation -
o generativity/self-absorption -
o integrity/despair -

Each stage consists of series of conflicts or crises that must be

resolved
Major strength is that it covers entire life span

ERICK ERICKSONS PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF

DEVELOPMENT

Psychosocial theory on the stages of child development was proposed

by Erikson. He stresses upon Epigenetic principle, according to
whhich the development of new properties which are not contained in
the original situation develop us result of environmental influences
and the interaction between the former (original situation) and the
latter (environment factors). According to Erikson the stages of
development are categorized into eight phases marked by specific
development characteristics. The stages are as follows.

Stage I : (Birth to 1st year)

A sense of trust vs mistrust. This stage begins from birth and is

continued to eighteen months of age. The first and formal task of an
infant is to develop the basic sense of trust in himself and his
environment. For the fulfillment of his basic needs he completely
depends on others. Due to dissatisfaction of his needs he gradually
loses his sense of faith in the world around him. The sense of faith
may be laid down during this period.

Stage II : (1 to 2 years)

A sense of autonomy versus a sense of shame. In this stage, child

develops a sense of autonomy. He does not want help from others. He
likes to do things in his own way. Parents should be careful about their
autonomy. There should have balance between firmness and
permissiveness to make a healthy sense of autonomy.
Stage III : (3 to 5 years)

A sense of initiative versus guilt. The third stage of psycho-social

development between three to six years of age is characterized by the
crisis of initiative versus guilt. Equipped with the sense of trust and
autonomy the child now begins to take initiative in interacting with his
environment. Therefore, these is need to resolve the crisis of initiative
vs guilt at this stage of psycho-social development and it can be
property done if we allow the child to experiment with his initiative by
properly supervising and guiding him activities and encouraging him
to develop a habit of self-evaluation of the results of his initiative.

Stage IV : (6 to 12 years)

Period of industry vs. inferiority. Generally, by this age children

begin to attend to school where they are made to learn various skills
and the teachers as well as the school environment generate pressures
on them to work hard in order to perform well. Parents also now begin
to make demands upon the children to lend their hand with household
duties or some cases put them with occupational responsibilities.
Therefore, the teachers and the school environment thus play a very
significant role in helping the child out of the industry versus
inferiority crisis.

Stage V : (Adolescence)

The period of identity vs role confusion : This stage, beginning with

the advent of puberty, is marked with the crisis of identity vs role
confusion. Adolescents begin to search for their own personal identity
equipped with the sense of trust, initiative and industry. The sudden
changes in their bodies and mental functioning and the altered
demands of society compel them to ask questions of themselves like,
who am I ? What have I become? Am I the some person I used to be ?
What am I supposed to do and in which manner am I to behave. There
is return of heterosexual interests. Adolescents are concerned about
their future role and status.

Stage VI : (Early adult)

Intimacy vs isolation : This is the stage of easily adulthood. Erikson

considers social interaction has fundamental and unavoidable
influence on personality development. So, durng this stage the
individual tends to develop a sense of intimacy or commitment to
another person. The opposite of intimacy is isolation. When one fails
to develop an adequate sense of intimacy by using one's identity with
that of another person or when relation deteriorates for one reason or
another, one tends to develop a sense of isolation––a pulling away
from relationships and breaking off of ties.

Stage VII : (Young and middle adult)

The period of creativity vs stagnation : This stage is called middle

adulthood. In this stage, he tries to establish in a professional career.
He wants to satisfy his needs for generativity, a concern to establish
and guide the next generation. This is realized through nurturing his
own children, guiding and directing other young people and by
engaging in some kind of creative, productive for fruitful activity that
may prove beneficial to society. Opposed to the sense of generativity,
there is a tendency on past of the individual to become egoistic and
selfish. This leads to stagnation and personal impoverishment.

Stage VIII : (Late adult)

Integrity vs despair. This is old age. The person reflects upon the life
lived and sometimes integrates even death into the pattern. During this
last stage of psycho-social development one is confronted with the
final crisis of one's life span, termed ego-integrity vs despair. Ego-
integrity refers to the integration or culmination of the successful
resolution of all seven previous crisis in the course of one's life.

Attachment

A strong, two-way emotional bond, usually referring to relationship

between child and mother or primary caregiver.

 Protects child while providing child freedom to explore

 Strong attachments likely to be formed if adult sensitive to
needs of child
 Promoted by spontaneous hugging, smiling, eye contact, and
vocalizing.
Secure attachments in infancy tend to lead to sociability,
higher self-esteem, better relationships with siblings, fewer
tantruming or aggressive behaviors, better classroom behavior,
more empathy for others, fewer behavioral problems at later
ages, and better attention spans/confidence in problem solving.

Adolescence

Adolescence is stage that begins at onset of puberty.

In many societies, rites of passage, or initiation, mark transition from

childhood to adulthood. Usually take place around puberty. Serve as
public acknowledgment of transition from childhood to adulthood.

Adolescence is period of transition.

 Biologically - begins with puberty

 Psychologically - development problem-solving skills and
increase reliance on symbols, logic, and abstract thinking.
 Socially - between childhood and adulthood.

Onset Adolescence marked by two biological changes.

 Growth Spurt - marked increase in height and weight.

 Sexual maturation - in males the appearance of live sperm in
semen; in females the first menstrual period - the menarche.

The major task of adolescence is resolution of identity crisis, the

struggle to define and integrate sense of who one is, what one is to do
in life, and what one's attitudes, beliefs, and values should be.

Adulthood

Psychological markers

 In dependence, taking responsibility for one's actions and no

longer being dependent on one's parents.
 Interdependence - building new commitments and intimacies
in interpersonal relationships.

Adulthood is three overlapping periods

 Early Adulthood - 18 - 45 years

 Middle Adulthood - 45 to 65 years
 Late Adulthood - after 65 years

Early Adulthood

 At peak during 20s and 30s

 Two important decision making processes
o Choice of mate and family
o Choice of job or career

Middle Adulthood

 Place in framework of society fairly well set by time one is 40

 A time of transition and reexamination
o Own mortality
o Sensory capacities begin to diminish
o Gray hair and middle age spread
o Time is running out sense may lead to mid-life crisis
o For most is time of great satisfaction and true
opportunity

Tasks of Middle Adulthood

 Accepting and adjusting to physiological changes of middle

age.
 Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in
occupations.
 Adjusting to aging parents and/or assisting teenage children
become happy and responsible adults.
  Achieving adult social and civic responsibility
 Relating to spouse as a person
 Developing leisure-time activities

Late Adulthood - early to mid-60s

 Number increasing
 By 2000 make up 20 percent of population
 Ageism - discrimination or negative stereotypes formed on
basis of age.

Kubler-Ross described five stages in facing one's own death:

 denial
 anger
 bargaining
 depression and
 acceptance

 Many dying patients do not fit this pattern

 Dying people may be forced into and through these stages
instead of letting them face death their own way.
 Many dying patients do not fit this pattern
 Dying people may be forced into and through these stages
instead of letting them face death their own way.