EVOLUTION

Orderly change from one condition to another.

Evolution is a slow, gradual, continuous & irreversible process.

Origin of Universe

13.8 billion years ago

Origin of Earth

4.5 billion years

❑ Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of Earth,
i.e., almost four billion years back.
Primitive Earth

No atmosphere

The conditions on earth were:

❑ High temperature
❑ Volcanic eruptions
❑ Lightening
❑ Unstable radioactive elements
❑ UV rays
❑ Reducing atmosphere containing CH4, NH3, etc.
Theories for Origin of Life

1. Special creation
2. Cosmic panspermia
3. Abiogenesis/Spontaneous generation
4. Biogenesis
5. Oparin-Haldane’s/Modern Theory
 Theories for Origin of Life

Special creation Cosmic panspermia

Abiogenesis/Spontaneous generation Biogenesis

Louis Pasteur’s Swan Neck Flask Experiment

Louis Pasteur demonstrated –

Life comes only from pre-existing life.
Oparin – Haldane Theory (Modern Theory)

First form of life could have come from pre-existing

non-living organic molecules. (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.)

(A) CHEMICAL EVOLUTION ( Chemogeny )

(B) BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION ( Biogeny )

 Oparin-Haldane Theory

ATOMIC STAGE (4.5 bya)

C, H, O, N, Cl, F, He, Ar etc.

Chemogeny
MOLECULAR STAGE
H2O (vapour), NH3, CO2, CO, N2, H2, CH4, HCN, Cyanides, Carbides, Nitrides

SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (i) Atomic Stage

Aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, pentose, hexose, amino acids, glycerol,
fatty acids, purines and pyrimidines
(ii) Molecular Stage (Inorganic Stage)
COMPLEX ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Protein (non-structural & non-enzymatic), polysaccharides, fats/lipids,
nucleotides ® Nucleic acids (non-replicable)
(iii) Simple Organic Stage (monomers/ biomicromolecules)

SUN
(iv) Complex Organic Stage (polymers/ biomacromolecules)
CLOUD

RAIN

EARLY GASES LIGHTENING RADIATIONS

N-BASES
NUCLEOTIDES
(PURINES &
H2 PYRIMIDINES)
SUGARS POLYSACCHARIDES
HIGH
Primitive oceans
NH3 AMINO ACIDS PROTEINS
TEMPERATURE
Hot dilute soup/
HCN GLYCEROL
FATS/LIPIDS
pre biotic soup
H2O FATTY ACIDS

CH4
Stanley Miller Experiment
Q. In 1953, S. L. Miller created primitive earth conditions in the
laboratory and gave experimental evidence for the origin of the
first form of life from pre-existing non-living organic molecules.
The primitive earth conditions created include:
(1) Low temperature, volcanic storms, atmosphere rich in oxygen
(2) Low temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere
(3) High temperature, volcanic storms, non-reducing atmosphere
(4) High temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere
containing CH4, NH3, etc.

Ans. (4)
 Biological Evolution (Biogeny)

(i) Origin of Protobionts

Macromolecules which were synthesized abiotically in primitive

oceans later came together and formed large colloidal drop like
structures named as protobionts.

Macromolecules
Water Film Lipid
membrane

Protein

Coacervates Microspheres
(ii) Origin of Protocells (Eobionts)

Non-Replicating Mutation Self-Replicating

Nucleic Acid Nucleic Acid

Self-Replicating Nucleic
Nucleoproteins
Acid + Proteins

Nucleoproteins were the first sign of life.

1st form of Life : Eobiont – non-cellular

These first non-cellular forms of life could have originated

3 billion years ago.
(iii) Origin of First Cellular Form (Prokaryotes)

As a result of mutation, protocells became more complex and

efficient to use the materials available in the surrounding medium
and evolved into prokaryotic cells 2BYA; Chemoheterotroph and
anaerobic.

mutation
RNA DNA

organized
Ribozymes & Proteins Ribosomes
It includes some major changes like-

Atmosphere of earth changed from reducing to oxidizing, hence

possibilities of further chemical evolution finished, because
chemical evolution always takes place in reducing environment.

Free O2 oxidized CH4 and NH3 to form CO2, N2 and H2O, etc.

Some prokaryotes adapted themselves for aerobic mode of

respiration which provides approximately 20 times more energy
than anaerobic respiration.

Accumulation of free oxygen formed a layer of ozone in the outer

atmosphere of the earth.
(iv) Origin of Eukaryotic cell

Nucleus, mitochondria, and other cell organelles developed in the

cell, and the cell became metabolically more active. 1.5BYA
A Brief Account of Evolution

• Universe originated about 13.8 bya.

• Solar system and earth were formed about 4.5 bya.
• Life appeared ablut 4 bya.
• Non-cellular form of life appeared – 3 bya.
• First cellular form of life – 2 bya.
 Evidences for Organic Evolution

1. Palaeontological evidences
2. Comparative anatomy and morphology
3. Vestigial organs
4. Atavism (Reversion)
5. Connecting links
6. Biochemistry
7. Embryology
8. Biogeographical distribution of organisms
 1. Palaeontological Evidences

❑ Fossils are impression or remains of hard parts of life-forms

found in rocks
❑ Process of fossilization

We find fossils
mostly in this form
Recent sediments
Newer fossils (simple + complex)

Geological history and biological history

Some represent extinct Existed in a
organisms particular
geological period

Different sediments
contain different fossils

Life forms vary over

period

Older fossils (usually simpler)

Oldest sediments
Evolution (Pedigree) of Horse

Equus Modern Horse 1- toe

Pliohippus Pony like 1- toe

Merychippus Donkey like 3- toes

Mesohippus Sheep like 3- toes

Eohippus Fox like 4- toes

• Amber is fossilized tree resin, which has been appreciated for its
color and natural beauty since Neolithic times
• Fossilized insects trapped in amber
Petrified fossils

❑ Petrified fossils are most common type of fossils.

Print fossils

Print fossils of an insect

Print fossils of a leaf

Fossil of Archaeopteryx

❑ Missing link between reptiles and birds

❑ Fossil was discovered by Andreas Wagner from Bavaria in Germany

 A model of Archaeopteryx
Q
B
R

P
A

Reptilian characters Avian characters

A. Long lizard like tail with free caudal P. Forelimbs modified into
vertebrae wings

B. Teeth present in jaw Q. Feathers on body

C. Weak sternum R. Jaws modified into beak
D. Non pneumatic bones S. Hind limbs built in avian plan
 Geological Time Scale

❑ Chronological order of the history of organic evolution on earth

❑ Total age of earth 4.5 billion years

Divided into
6 - Eras

Divided into

Periods

Divided into

Epochs
 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Era Period Epochs Life forms

COENOZOIC Ice age.
QUATERNARY
(Age of Birds, Holocene Angiosperms, birds and mammals are
(Age of Man)
Mammals and dominant
Angiosperms) TERTIARY Early primates
Dinosaur Extinction, Early flowering plants,
CRETACEOUS
Appearance of modern birds

MESOZOIC (Age JURASSIC (Golden Golden age of Dinosaurs & conifers,

of Reptiles) age of Dinosaurs) Archeopteryx appeared
First dinosaurs
TRIASSIC First mammals

PERMIAN Synapsids (Mammal like reptiles)

Fern and seed plant
CARBONIFEROUS
Golden age of Amphibia
DEVONIAN Golden age of fishes
PALAEOZOIC
SILURIAN Golden age of jawless fishes
ORDOVICIAN Golden age of marine Invertebrates

CAMBRIAN Trilobites (Extinct arthropods) were dominant

PRECAMBIAN Multicellular organism appeared

Origin of life Early bacteria(stromatolites)
A Brief account of evolution:
❑ First cellular forms of life – 2000 mya

❑ Invertebrates were formed – 500 mya

❑ Jawless fishes – 350 mya

❑ Sea weeds and few plants – 320 mya.

❑ The first organisms that invaded land were plants. They were
widespread on land when animals invaded land.

❑ The first mammals (primates) were like shrews.

❑ Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they all fell to form
coal deposits slowly.
Mammals Birds
Extincted
Intelligent, 65mya
viviparous
Dinosaurs
Went back to water
Extincted Ichthyosaurs (200mya)
Early Reptiles
Turtles, Tortoises,
Extincted crocodiles
Early Amphibians Frogs, Salamanders

Coelacanth or lobefins
Thought to be extinct
Caught in S. Africa (1938)
Could move on land
 Triceratops

Tyrannosaurus
Pteranodon

Crocodilian

Archaeopteryx

Stegosaurus Brachiosaurus

Thecodont
A Brief Account of Evolution

About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth.

When reptiles came down mammals took over the earth.

Q. Match List I with List II. NEET 2024
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
List I List II
A. Mesozoic Era I. Lower invertebrates
B. Proterozoic Era II. Fish & Amphibia
C. Cenozoic Era III. Birds & Reptiles
D. Paleozoic Era IV Mammals

(1) A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV

(2) A-III, B-I, C-II, D-IV
(3) A-I, B-II, C-IV, D-III
(4) A-III, B-I, C-IV, D-II

Ans. (4)
Q. What is the correct order (old to recent) of periods in Palaeozoic
era ? NEET 2024
(1) Silurian, Devonian, Permian, Carboniferous
(2) Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian
(3) Permian, Devonian, Silurian, Carboniferous
(4) Silurian, Carboniferous, Permian, Devonian

Ans. (2)
2. Evidences from Comparative Morphology & Anatomy

Homology Analogy

Indicates common ancestry Does not indicate common ancestry

based on divergent evolution based on convergent evolution

Formation of multiple Different group of organisms

species from a common have similar adaptive features
ancestral species due to similar habitat or towards
the same function
 HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES
Homologous Organs

IN ANIMALS IN PLANTS

Human Cat Horse Bat Whale

❑ Forelimbs of mammals ❑ Thorn of Bougainvillea
❑ Vertebrates hearts and tendril of Cucurbita
❑ Potato and Ginger-both
❑ Vertebrates brain
are modified shoot
❑ Mouth parts of insects
❑ Radish and Carrot-both
❑ Testes in male and are modified roots
Bougainvillea Cucurbita ovaries in female
Molecular Homology

Evidence from biochemistry.

Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function

among diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry.

For example, the plasma proteins found in the blood of man

and apes are similar.
Adaptive Divergence

The process of evolution of different species in a given

geographical area, starting from a point and literally radiating to
other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation.
Marsupial radiation

Placental radiation

Darwin’s finches
Darwin’s Finches :
During the journey of Galapagos Islands, Darwin observed an
amazing diversity of creatures. Of particular interest, small black
birds later called Darwin's Finches, amazed him.
Sugar glider/ Tasmanian wolf
Flying phalanger

Tiger cat

Marsupial mole Marsupial

Radiation
Banded anteater/
Numbat

Koala Marsupial rat

Bandicoot Wombat Kangaroo

Placental Mammals-

Flying squirrel
Wolf

Mole Bobcat
Placental
Radiation
Anteater
Rabbit

Mouse

Lemur Deer
Brown bear
Q. Which evolutionary phenomenon is depicted by the sketch given
figure? NEET 2024

(1) Artificial selection

(2) Genetic drift
(3) Convergent evolution
(4) Adaptive radiation

Ans. (4)
Analogy

Similar habitats that have resulted in the selection of similar

adaptive features in different groups of organisms but toward
the same function.

Analogy doesn't indicate common ancestry.

Analogy is based upon convergent evolution.

Analogy

Examples

Wings of butterflies and birds

Eye of the octopus and mammal
Flippers of Dolphins & Penguins
Sweet potato & potato
Convergent evolution or Adaptive convergence:

When more than one adaptive radiation appears to have occurred

in an isolated geographical area (representing different habitats),
this can be called convergent evolution.

E.g. Wolf (placental) and Tasmanian wolf (marsupial)

Adaptive convergence or convergent evolution
Parallel Evolution

Parallel evolution occurs when two independent, but similar

species evolve in the same direction and thus independently
acquire similar characteristics.

E.g.
(i) Australian marsupials and corresponding placental mammals.
(ii) Evolution of human brain and language.
Difference between Homology and Analogy

Homology Analogy

Common origin Different origin

Different embryonic
Same embryonic development
development

Same fundamental structure Different fundamental structure

Same or different functions Always same functions

Homologous structures Analogous structures

Divergent Evolution Convergent Evolution

Doesn’t represent common

Represent Common ancestry
ancestry
 3. Vestigial Organs

❑ The organs which are present in reduced form and do not

perform any function in the body but are functional in related
animals are called vestigial organs.

Example (i) Nictitating membrane (plica semilunaris)

(ii) Muscles of pinna (auricular muscles)
(iii) Vermiform appendix (Caecum)
(iv) Coccyx [Last caudal vertebrae]
 4. Atavism (Reversion)

❑ Sometimes in some individuals such characters suddenly

appears which were supposed to be present in their ancestors
but were lost during the course of evolution, this phenomenon is
known as atavism or reversion.

Example (i) Tail in new born baby

(ii) Extra long and pointed canine teeth
(iii) Long and thick body
(iv) Extra nipples in female hair
 5. Connecting Links

❑ Some organisms possess characters of two separate groups

called as connecting links, which proves that members of higher
groups have evolved from the lower group.

Example Virus : Connecting link between Non-living & Living

Euglena : Connecting link between plants & animals
Proterospongia : Connecting link between protozoa & porifera
Neopilina : Connecting link between annelida & Mollusca
Peripatus : Connecting link between annelida & arthropoda
Balanoglossus : Connecting link between non chordata & chordata
Chimera : Connecting link between cartilagenous & bony fishes
Protopterus : Connecting link between fishes and amphibia
(Lung fish)
Seymouria : Connecting link between amphibia and reptilia
Archaeopteryx : Connecting link between reptilia and aves
Platypus : Connecting link between reptilia and mammalia
Echidna : Connecting link between reptilia and mammalia
6. Biochemistry

Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among

diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry.

Composition and structure of protoplasm, enzymes, hormones, DNA,

blood in chordates is also almost same. It shows that organisms
shared ancestors in recent or distant past.
7. Embryology

Baer’s law: In embryonic stages general characters appear firstly

and specialized characters appear later
7. Embryology

Muller’s Recapitulation theory:

“Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”
During embryonic development (ontogeny), an embryo passes
through its evolutionary history (phylogeny).
Ernst Haeckel’s Biogenetic law: An organism shows its ancestral
adult stages during its embryonic development.

Example:
Tadpole of amphibians resembles fishes
Heart of higher vertebrates (birds and mammals) firstly appears 2-
chambered (fish like),Than 3-chambered (amphibia and reptilia like)
and finally appears as 4-chambered during development.

Note
Haeckel’s proposal was disproved by Von Baer. He observed that
embryos never pass through the adult stages of other animals
8. Biogeography Distribution

The study of geographical distribution of animals and plant species

Pangea/supercontinent Continental drift

Continents
Q. Match List-I with List-II. NEET 2024
Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
List I List II
A. Living Fossil I. Elongated canine teeth
B. Connecting Link II. Vermiform appendix
C. Vestigial Organ III. Echidna
D. Atavism IV Latimeria
(1) A-IV, B-III, C-II, D-I
(2) A-IV, B-II, C-III, D-I
(3) A-IV, B-III, C-I, D-II
(4) A-III, B-IV, C-I, D-II

Ans. (1)
EVOLUTION
 Theories of Organic Evolution

A. Lamarckism

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829)

Book
Philosophie Zoologique (1809)

Theory

Theory of inheritance of acquired characters

 Theory of inheritance of acquired characters

Basic concepts of Lamarckism

(i) (ii) (iii)

Internal vital Effect of environment Use and disuse of
forces and new organs
needs/desires [Law
of Appetency]

New characters (acquired characters)

(iv) Inheritance of acquired characters

According
Accumulation of characters over generations to
Lamarck
ORIGIN OF NEW SPECIES
Examples

1. Long neck and forelimbs of giraffe

2. Webbed toes in aquatic birds

3. Loss of limbs in snakes

Criticism of Lamarckism
(1) Weismann’s Experiment

Mating
Tail cut Tail cut
Mating
1st generation

2nd generation
Tail cut
Up to 22 Mating
generations

3rd generation
(2) Piercing of nose and ear pinnae

(3) Chinese girls wear hard leather/metal shoes but still their newly borns
have normal feet
 B. Darwinism

Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882)

Travelled Book
On the Origin of Species
through
H.M.S. Beagle by means of Natural
Selection (1859)
Theory

Theory of Natural selection

❑ Two Key concepts of Darwinian Theory

A. Branching descent

B. Natural selection
 Theory of Natural selection

Postulates of Darwinism

1. Over production
2. Struggle for existence
3. Variations and heredity
4. Natural selection/ Survival of the fittest
5. Origin of New species
 1. Over production
❑ Organisms multiply in geometric ratio i.e
Seasonal
1→2 → 4 → 8 → 16 → 32 → 64 → 128 → 256 → … fluctuation

Population size

Population size
Population size
time time time

Theoretically population
But the fact is that
size will grow
population sizes in Except for seasonal
exponentially if
reality are limited (due fluctuation
everybody reproduces
to limited food or space)
maximally
2. Struggle for existence
3 - types
(i) Intra specific struggle (ii) Inter specific struggle (iii) Environmental struggle

Food, Shelter cold, heat,

Food & wind, rain,
& Mating Shelter drought &
Partner flood
3. Variations and heredity Population has built-in variations

No two individuals of a population are alike

Variations

Adaptive Non - Adaptive

OR OR
Useful variations Harmful variations

Adaptive Resource Chances of

variations utilisation Reproduction
Survival
 4. Natural Selection/ Survival of fittest

More Get selected

Better Ability
Adaptive Fitness by nature
fit to Adapt
Variations
(heritable)
According to If variation is
Darwin fitness heritable and
means organism is
REPRODUCTIVE reproductively fit
FITNESS

It will leave
more progeny
of its kind
(in compare of lesser fit)
NOTE : Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by
nature.
5. Origin of New species
❑ Slowly slowly these so called good variations accumulate generation by
generation; and after several generations, the difference among the
populations becomes so much, that they appear as a new species.

After number of generations each of

them may form a new species
Sexual selection
❑ Usually females prefer those males for mating who have better phenotypic
characters.
Criticism of Darwinism

• No satisfactory explanation for the cause, origin and

inheritance of variations

No knowledge of genetics

• Unable to explain the arrival of fittest

• Why in a population only a few individuals develop useful variations?
• Why only females have the right of selection for mating?

• Existence of vestigial organs?

• Darwin was unable to differentiate the somatic and germinal variations
Comparison of Lamarckism and Darwinism

LAMARCKISM DARWINISM
Mutation theory By Hugo de Vries
Worked on
Oenothera lamarckiana
(Evening primrose)

Mutation

Large differences arising suddenly in a population

Inheritable, Random, Non-directional

Mostly recessive and harmful

Saltation – Single Step large mutation
Mutations are ultimate source of variations.

Criticism Natural mutations are not very common

Characters participating in evolution are usually
dominant, while mostly mutations are recessive
 NEODARWINISM / Modern synthetic theory of organic evolution
❑ Modified form of Darwinism along with recent researches of Weismann,
De Vries, Stebbins, Dobzhansky, Sewall Wright, Mayr, etc
❑ Following factors are responsible for formation of new species
1. Rapid multiplication
2. Limited food and space
3. Struggle for existence
4. Genetic variations
(i) Genetic recombination (crossing over)
(ii) Mutation
(iii) Hybridization
(iv) Gene migration & Gene flow – Change in gene frequencies
due to migration of some members of a population
(v) Genetic drift - Change in gene frequency occurs by chance
5. Natural selection
6. Reproductive isolation
 1. Gene recombination 2 .Mutations
❑ Due to crossing over during sexual ❑ Large differences arising suddenly
reproduction

Crossing over Mutation

❑ Small, Directional ❑ Large, Non-directional

(Darwinian variations)
❑ Continuous source of variations ❑ Discontinuous source of variations

❑ Common source of variations in ❑ Source of variations in sexually

sexually reproducing population and asexually reproducing
population
❑ According to Darwin, Evolution is a ❑ According to deVries, Evolution is
slow process. a jerky process.
3. Hybridisation
4. Gene Migration & Gene Flow
❑ When migration of a section of population to another place and
population occurs, gene frequencies change in the original as well as in
the new population. New genes/alleles are added to the new population
and these are lost from the old population.

❑ There would be a gene flow if this gene migration, happens multiple

times.
5. Genetic Drift (Sewall Wright effect)

❖ Random change of gene/ allelic frequencies in a population by chance

❖ It operates rapidly in small isolated population

❖ Two forms of genetic drift: (i) Founder effect

(ii) Bottleneck effect
(i) Founder effect
❑ The original drifted population becomes Founder population and the effect
is called founder effect.

❑ A small group colonizes a new habitat

Migrated/drifted
member OR
founder member

Population A New population

(ii) Bottleneck effect

❑ Frequency of allele changes randomly due to natural calamities

(bottlenecks) like - Earthquake, volcanic eruption, fire, Floods, storms,
epidemics etc.

Parent Next
Surviving Generations
Population Bottleneck
Individuals
Event
(By chance) Yellow & blue
Yellow, blue
alleles*
Red alleles*
 HARDY - WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
❑ Gene/allele frequencies in a large, randomly mating population are stable
and remain constant from generation to generation.

p+q=1

p - Frequency of dominant allele(A)

q - Frequency of recessive allele(a)

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

p2 - Frequency of individuals with genotype AA

2pq - Frequency of individuals with genotype Aa
q2 - Frequency of individuals with genotype aa
❑ Five Factors are known to affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

• Gene recombination / crossing over

• Genetic drift

• Gene migration or gene flow

• Mutation

• Natural selection
 Examples of Natural Selection

1. Industrial Melanism Studied by Bernard Kettlewell in England

Peppered moth White-winged (Non-melanic form)

(Biston betularia)
Dark-winged (Melanic form)

Before industrialization(1850) After industrialization(1920)

Lichens Soot on
trunk
Dark moths White moths
Contrasting Contrasting

White moths Dark moths

Camouflaged Camouflaged
No. of white moths - more No. of dark moths - more
2. Drug resistance in bacteria & pesticide resistance in insects

One mutant
Antibiotics
antibiotic resistant bacterium
appeared in population

Bacterial Antibiotic kills all the Antibiotic resistant

population bacteria except bacterium
antibiotic resistant multiplies and forms
bacteria a population of
antibiotic resistant
bacteria
 Pesticides
spray Breeding

Pest population
Pesticides
Susceptible to pesticides spray
Resistant to pesticides

Resistant
Pest population

These are examples of evolution by Anthropogenic action.

NOTE:

❑ Evolution is not a directed process in the sense of determinism.

❑ It is a stochastic Process (Probable/by chance)

❑ based on chance events in the nature

❑ and chance mutation in the organisms.
 GENETIC BASIS OF ADAPTATIONS/NATURAL SELECTION
❑ The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life
span. 1
Rate of appearance of new life forms α
life span
An experiment
Complete Medium

Colony - A of Bacteria
does normal growth
Built-in variations
Colony - B of Bacteria
Change in feed component Survives
Deficient Medium
Will appear as a
new species

Fitness of B > Fitness of A

❑ Fitness or adaptive ability is based on characteristics which are inherited.
It has a genetic basis.

❑ Microbial experiments show that pre-existing advantageous mutations

when selected will result in observation of new phenotypes. Over few
generations, this would result in Speciation

❑ Means mutations are pre-adaptive and natural selection fixes them in a

population over the generations.
 Artificial Selection

❑ Artificial selection is similar to natural selection except that the role of

nature is taken over by man and the characters selected are of human use.

❑ Example of Artificial selection:

❑ In Plants: Different varieties of

wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton,
pulses, vegetable, fruits etc.

❑ In Animals: Different breed of

Dogs, horses, pigeons, poultry,
cows, goats, sheep, pigs etc.
 Pouter

Wild rock
Jacobin
pigeon

Fantail

❑ It is argued that if within hundreds of years man could create new

breeds, could not nature have done in millions of years?
 TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION
(1) Stabilizing selection

Peak gets higher &

[Link] INDIVIDUALS
WITH PHENOTYPES
narrower After
selection
Before
selection

PERIPHERAL MEAN PERIPHERAL

VALUE VALUE VALUE
PHENOTYPES →

e.g. Average body weight of new born babies in human

 (2) Directional selection

Peak shifts in one

direction

[Link] INDIVIDUALS
WITH PHENOTYPES
Before After
selection selection

PERIPHERAL MEAN PERIPHERAL

VALUE VALUE VALUE
PHENOTYPES →

e.g. Industrial melanism Resistance of pests to DDT

(3) Disruptive selection
Two peaks form
After

[Link] INDIVIDUALS
WITH PHENOTYPES
Before selection
selection

PERIPHERAL MEAN PERIPHERAL

VALUE VALUE VALUE
PHENOTYPES →
 Special points

❖ Is evolution a process or the result of a process?

✓ When we describe the story of this world we describe evolution as a
process.
✓ On the other hand when we describe the story of life on earth, we treat
evolution as a consequence(result) of a process called natural selection.
✓ We are still not very clear whether to regard evolution and natural
selection as processes or end result of unknown processes.

❖ Unit of natural selection – Individual

❖ Unit of Evolution – Population
❖ Camouflage : When an organism shows resemblance with the
surroundings(environment).
Examples of camouflage:

Preying mantis Grasshopper

Chameleon Frog
 Which of the following is responsible for evolution according to Neo-
Darwinism ?
(1) Mutation
(2) Natural selection
(3) Mutation and Natural selection
(4) Either (1) or (2)
Sol.

Ans. (3)
 Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection was based on :-
(1) Inheritance of acquired characters
(2) Mutation
(3) Enormous rate of reproduction in organisms, struggle for existence
and survival of the fittest
(4) Changes due to the use and disuse of organs
Sol.

Ans. (3)
 Genetic drift rapidally operates in :-
(1) Small isolated population
(2) Large isolated population
(3) Fast reproductive population
(4) Slow reproductive population
Sol.

Ans. (1)
 Frequency of an allele in an isolated population may change due to :-
(1) Genetic drift
(2) Gene flow
(3) Mutation
(4) Natural selection
Sol.

Ans. (1)
 Which of the following was not given by Darwin's theory of evolution ?
(1) Struggle for existence
(2) Over production
(3) Natural selection
(4) Genetic drift
Sol.

Ans. (4)
 Industrial melanism is an example of :-
(1) Neo Lamarckism
(2) Neo Darwinism
(3) Natural selection
(4) Mutation
Sol.

Ans. (3)
 The factor that leads to Founder effect in a population is :-
(1) Natural selection
(2) Genetic recombination
(3) Mutation
(4) Genetic drift
Sol.

Ans. (4)
 According to Darwin, the term fitness refers to :-
(1) Social fitness
(2) Mental fitness
(3) Physical fitness
(4) Reproductive fitness
Sol.

Ans. (4)
 Giraffe's neck and forelimbs get elongated during the course of
evolution, due to :-
(1) Inheritance of acquired characters
(2) Natural selection
(3) Geographical isolation
(4) Convergent evolution
Sol.

Ans. (2)
 Before industrialization set in England :-
(1) Only white winged moths were present on trees
(2) White winged moths were less in number on trees
(3) Dark winged moths were less in number on trees
(4) White winged moths were absent
Sol.

Ans. (3)
 Evidences for common Origin of human & apes
❑ Chromosomal similarities
▪ Banding pattern of chromosome no 3 & 6 of
human and chimpanzee is 100% similar

▪ Number of chromosomes are approx same in

human (46) and apes (48).
▪ DNA of human is more than 99% similar with chimpanzee
❑ Skull of baby chimpanzee is more like adult human
❑ ABO blood group series in both and similar plasma protein
❑ Composition of Hb - same
❑ Menstrual cycle - present
❑ Tail absent and grasping hands
 Evolution of man
Dryopithecus/Proconsul
Ape fossils Ramapithecus
Sivapithecus
Kenyapithecus
Fossils of
ancestors Ape-man fossils Australopithecus
of man
Homo habilis
Man fossils Homo erectus
Homo sapiens
 Ape fossils
❑ About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus were
existing. They were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees.

1. Dryopithecus - Common ancestor of man and ape

- Direct ancestor of modern day apes
- Semi erect posture, thick hair, larger and sharper
teeth and were vegetarian
- Quadripedal, forelimbs longer than hindlimbs
2. Ramapithecus
Fossils discovered from Shivalik Hills, India
3. Sivapithecus
4. Kenyapithecus

❑ Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus was more ape-like.

 Ape-man fossils
❑ Australopithecus - 1st fossil discovered by Prof. Raymond Dart &
named as Taung baby (A. africanus)
- 2 mya, lived in East African grasslands
- Hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit

- Cranial capacity – 600 cc

❑ Australopithecus is considered as connecting link between apes and man

❑ First ancestor of man with erect posture (bipedal locomotion)
❑ Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in Ethiopia (A.
afarensis) and Tanzania (A. boisei). These revealed hominid features
leading to the belief that about 3-4 mya, man-like primates walked in
eastern Africa. They were probably not taller than 4 feet but walked up
right.
 Man fossils/ Pre-historic men
1. Homo habilis 2. Homo erectus
Time period 2 mya 1.5 mya

Cranial capacity 650-800 C.C. Avg. 900 C.C.

Food habit Probably did Probably ate

not eat meat meat

Special First Human being like Use of fire

features
First Tool maker Fossils
Or ❖ Java man
Handy man ❖ Peking man
❖ Heidelberg man
 3. Homo sapiens (i) Homo sapiens neanderthalensis
(ii) Homo sapiens fossilis
(iii) Homo sapiens sapiens

(i) Homo sapiens neanderthalensis

Common name -Neanderthal man

Time period -1,00,000- 40,000 years ago
Cranial capacity -1400 cc

Food habit -Omnivorous

Special features -Lived in East & Central Asia

-Used skin of animals to protect body
-Ritual burial of deads
 (ii) Homo sapiens (iii) Homo sapiens
fossilis sapiens
Common name - Cro-magnon man Modern man
Time period- 50,000- 10,000 years 10,000 years ago
ago
Cranial capacity- 1650 cc 1450 cc

Food habit- Omnivorous Omnivorous

Special features- ✓ Domestication of ✓ Started Agriculture
Animals 10000 years ago
✓ 18000 years old
cave art ✓ Modern Homo
sapiens arose during
✓ Bhimbetka, Raisen, ice age 75,000-10,000
M.P. years ago
 Which of the following statement is correct ?
(1) Dryopithecus was ancestor of man and ape
(2) Dryopithecus was ancestor of man and not of ape
(3) Apes were ancestor of man anatomically
(4) None of them
Sol.

Ans. (1)
 Which of the following statement is true ?
(1) Homo erectus is direct ancestor of Homo sapiens
(2) Neanderthal man is direct ancestor of modern man
(3) Australopithecus is direct ancestor of modern man
(4) Fossils of Cromagnon man first found in Ethopia
Sol.

Ans. (1)
 Closest ancestor to modern man was :-
(1) Neanderthal man
(2) Homo habilis
(3) Cro-magnon man
(4) Australopithecus
Sol.

Ans. (3)
 The chronological order of human evolution from early to the recent is :-
(1) Ramapithecus → Homo habilis → Australopithecus → Homo erectus
(2) Australopithecus → Homo habilis → Ramapithecus → Homo erectus
(3) Australopithecus → Ramapithecus → Homo habilis → Homo erectus
(4) Ramapithecus → Australopithecus → Homo habilis → Homo erectus
Sol.

Ans. (4)
 Which of the following statements is correct about the origin and
evolution of men ?
(1) Agriculture came around 50,000 years back.
(2) The Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus primates existing 15 million
years ago, walked like men.
(3) Homo habilis probably ate meat.
(4) Neanderthal men lived in Asia betweeen 1,00,000 and 40,000
years back.
Sol.

Ans. (4)
 A Hominid fossil discovered in Java in 1891, now extinct, having
cranial capacity of about 900 cc was :-
(1) Homo erectus
(2) Neanderthal man
(3) Homo sapiens
(4) Australopithecus
Sol.

Ans. (1)