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LECTURE NOTES On BASIC OF CIVIL ENGINEERING & MECHANICAL

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 LECTURE NOTES
On

BASIC OF CIVIL ENGINEERING &

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COURSE CODE: 24AF2CMEES206
B Tech First/ Second Semester,

Dr. Shradhesh Rajuji Marve

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engg RCERT, Chandrapur
24AF2CMEES2 Basic Civil and Mechanical ESC 3L- 0T - 0P 3 Credits
06 Engineering

Teaching Scheme Examination Scheme

Theory: 3 hr./week Continuous Assessment : 20 Marks
Mid Semester Exam: 20 Marks
End Semester Exam: 60 Marks

Course Objectives:
1. To identify various Civil Engineering materials and choose suitable material among various
options.
2. To know and apply principles of surveying to solve engineering problem
3. To identify various Civil Engineering structural components and select appropriate structural
system among various options
4. To Explain and define various properties of basic thermodynamics, materials and
manufacturing processes.
5. To know and discuss the working principle of various power consuming and power developing
devices.
Course Outcomes:
Students will be able to:
1. Identify various Civil Engineering materials and choose suitable material among various
options.
2. Apply principles of surveying to solve engineering problem
3. Identify various Civil Engineering structural components and select appropriate structural
system among various options
4. Explain and define various properties of basic thermodynamics, materials and manufacturing
processes.
5. Know and discuss the working principle of various power consuming and power developing
devices

Part I Basic Civil Engineering

Module 1: Introduction to civil engineering (4hrs)

Various Branches, role of civil engineer in various construction activities, basic engineering
properties and uses of materials: earth, bricks, timber, stones, sand, aggregates, cement, mortar,
concrete, steel, bitumen, glass, FRP, composite materials.
Module 2: Building Components & Building Planning (4 hrs)
Foundation and superstructure, functions of foundation, types of shallow and deep foundations,
suitability in different situation, plinth, walls, lintels, beams, columns, slabs, roofs, staircases,
floors, doors, windows, sills, Study of Building plans, ventilation, basics of plumbing and
sanitation

Module3: Surveying (4 hrs)

Principles of survey, elements of distance and angular measurements, plotting of area, base line
and offsets, introduction to Plane table surveying, introduction to levelling, concept of bench
marks, reduced level, contours.
Part II Basic Mechanical Engineering
Unit 1: Introduction to Mechanical Engineering: (4 hrs)
Introduction to Laws of Thermodynamics with simple examples pertaining to respective
branches, IC Engines: Classification, Applications, Basic terminology, 2 and 4 stroke IC engine
working principle, Power Plant: Types of Power plant; Gas power plant, Thermal power plant,
Nuclear power plant, Automobiles: Basic definitions and objectives.
Unit 2: (4 hrs)
Design Basics, Machine and Mechanisms, Factor of safety, Engineering Materials: types and
applications, basics of Fasteners Machining and Machinability, Introduction to Lathe machine,
Drilling machine, Milling machine, basics of machining processes such as turning, drilling and
milling, Introduction to casting.

Text Books
1. Anurag Kandya, “Elements of Civil Engineering”, Charotar Publishing,Anand
2. M. G. Shah, C. M. Kale, and S. Y. Patki, “Building Drawing”, Tata McGrawHill
3. Sushil Kumar, “Building Construction”, Standard PublishersDistributors
4. M. S. Palani Gamy, “Basic Civil Engineering”, Tata Mc-Graw Hill Publication
5. Kanetkar T. P. and Kulkarni S. V., “Surveying and Levelling”, Vols. I, II and III, Vidyarthi
Gruh Prakashan,Pune
6. Punmia, “Surveying”, Vol.- I, Vol.-II, Vol.-III, Laxmi Publications
7. G. K. Hiraskar, “Basic Civil Engineering”, Dhanpat RaiPublications
8. Gopi Satheesh, “Basic Civil Engineering”, PearsonEducation
9. P. K. Nag “Engineering Thermodynamics”, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi 3rd ed.2005
10. Ghosh, A K Malik, “Theory of Mechanisms and Machines”, Affiliated East West Press
Pvt. Ltd. NewDelhi.
11. Serope Kalpakaji and Steven R Schimd “ Amanufacturing Engineering and Techology”
Addision Wsley Laongman India 6th Edition2009
12. V. B. Bhandari, “ Deisgn of Machine Elements”, Tata McGraw Hill Publications,
NewDelhi.
Module-I

Module I
Introduction to civil engineering (4hrs)
Various Branches, role of civil engineer in various construction activities, basic engineering
properties and uses of materials: earth, bricks, timber, stones, sand, aggregates, cement,
mortar, concrete, steel, bitumen, glass, FRP, composite materials.
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING :-
Civil engineering is a professional discipline that encompasses the design, construction, and
maintenance of the built environment, including public infrastructure such as roads, bridges,
canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, building structures, and railway networks.
This field traditionally encompasses various specialized sub-disciplines. Civil engineering
involves the application of physical and scientific principles to address societal challenges, and
its development is intricately connected to advancements in physics and mathematics
throughout history. Given its broad scope, the discipline of civil engineering draws on
knowledge from diverse domains, including Structural Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering,
Transportation Engineering, Environmental Engineering, and Water Resources Engineering
(Li, 2020) (Grigg, 2009) (Li & Li, 2013).

The training objectives for civil engineering students typically focus on cultivating high-quality
applied technical talents who can master the fundamental principles and knowledge of the civil
engineering discipline, and apply this expertise to design, construction, development,
management, consultation, and other work in the field of construction engineering,
transportation infrastructure, and public works.

As the world faces growing challenges related to sustainable development and the transition to
clean energy sources, civil engineers are increasingly called upon to play a central role in
devising innovative solutions.
1.2 Disciplines of Civil Engineering-
The various disciplines of civil engineering are- Civil engineering is a diverse field that
encompasses several specialized sub-disciplines, each with its own unique focus and skill set:

[Link] Engineering: Involves the design and analysis of load-bearing structures, such as
buildings, bridges, and dams, to ensure their stability, safety, and resilience.

[Link] Engineering: Focuses on the behavior of soil and rock, and their interaction
with engineering structures, including foundations, retaining walls, and slope stability.

[Link] Engineering: Deals with the planning, design, construction, and management
of transportation infrastructure, including roads, railways, airports, and public transit systems.

[Link] Engineering: Addresses issues related to water supply, wastewater treatment,

air pollution control, and waste management, with the goal of protecting human health and the
environment.

[Link] Resources Engineering: Involves the planning, design, and management of water-
related infrastructure, such as dams, reservoirs, irrigation systems, and flood control measures

Let's delve into the diverse branches of civil engineering you've listed:

1.3 Branches of Civil Engineering

1. Structural Engineering

This branch focuses on the design, analysis, and construction of structures that support or resist
loads. Structural engineers ensure the stability, safety, and durability of buildings, bridges,
tunnels, towers, and other structures. They consider factors like gravity, wind, earthquakes, and
other natural forces to create resilient designs. Key aspects include:

 Material Selection: Choosing appropriate materials (steel, concrete, timber, composites)

based on strength, cost, and environmental impact.
 Load Calculation: Determining the forces acting on a structure, including dead loads
(weight of the structure itself) and live loads (occupants, furniture, vehicles).
 Structural Analysis: Using mathematical models and software to analyze the behavior
of structures under various loads and conditions.
 Design and Detailing: Creating detailed drawings and specifications for the construction
of structural elements.

2. Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering deals with the behavior of earth materials, including soil and rock. It's
crucial for designing foundations, retaining walls, tunnels, and other structures that interact with
the ground. Key aspects include:

 Soil Mechanics: Studying the physical properties and behavior of soils, including
strength, compressibility, and permeability.
 Rock Mechanics: Investigating the properties and behavior of rocks, including their
strength, deformability, and stability.
  Foundation Design: Determining the appropriate type and size of foundations to support
structures, considering soil conditions and load requirements.
 Slope Stability Analysis: Assessing the stability of natural and man-made slopes to
prevent landslides and other failures.

3. Transportation Engineering

This branch focuses on the planning, design, construction, and operation of transportation
systems. It encompasses roads, railways, airports, harbors, and other infrastructure that
facilitates the movement of people and goods. Key aspects include:

 Traffic Engineering: Managing traffic flow and optimizing road networks to improve
safety and efficiency.
 Highway Design: Designing and constructing roads and highways, considering factors
like alignment, pavement design, and drainage.
 Airport Engineering: Planning and designing airports, including runways, terminals,
and other facilities.
 Railway Engineering: Designing and constructing railway tracks, stations, and other
infrastructure.

4. Environmental Engineering

Environmental engineering addresses environmental issues related to infrastructure

development and operation. It aims to protect human health and the environment by mitigating
pollution and promoting sustainable practices. Key aspects include:

 Water Quality Management: Designing and operating water treatment plants to

provide safe drinking water and treat wastewater.
 Air Pollution Control: Developing strategies and technologies to reduce air pollution
from industrial and transportation sources.
 Solid Waste Management: Designing and managing landfills, recycling programs, and
other waste disposal systems.
 Environmental Remediation: Cleaning up contaminated sites and restoring them to
their natural state.

5. Water Resources Engineering

This branch focuses on the management and utilization of water resources. It involves the
planning, design, and operation of dams, reservoirs, canals, and other infrastructure for water
storage, distribution, and flood control. Key aspects include:

 Hydrology: Studying the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth.

 Hydraulics: Applying fluid mechanics principles to design and analyze water
conveyance systems.
 Irrigation Engineering: Designing and managing irrigation systems to provide water
for agriculture.
 Flood Control: Designing and implementing measures to prevent and mitigate floods.
A civil engineer plays a multifaceted role throughout the lifecycle of a construction project.
Their expertise is essential from the initial planning stages to the final completion and
maintenance of the built environment. Here's a breakdown of their involvement in various
construction activities:

1.4 Role of a Civil Engineer in Construction Activities

1. Planning and Design

 Feasibility Studies: Civil engineers conduct feasibility studies to assess the viability of
a project, considering factors like site conditions, environmental impact, and cost-
effectiveness. (Xie & Liu, 2014) mentions the importance of effective planning in
construction projects.
 Site Investigation: They investigate the site to gather data on soil properties, topography,
and other geotechnical aspects, which inform the design process. (2016) highlights the
importance of site inspection by the engineer.
 Design and Drawings: Civil engineers prepare detailed designs and drawings for the
project, including structural elements, foundations, drainage systems, and other
components. (Important Points for a Civil Site Engineer: Maintaining the Quality of
Work, 2018) mentions the engineer's responsibility for technical advice and supervision.
 Material Selection: They select appropriate construction materials based on their
properties, cost, and availability, ensuring quality and durability. (Civil Engineering
Website, 2024) discusses the importance of material selection in construction.

2. Construction Phase

 Project Management: Civil engineers oversee the construction process, ensuring that it
adheres to the design specifications, budget, and timeline. (2016) emphasizes the role of
a site engineer in ensuring work progresses as planned.
 Quality Control: They implement quality control measures to ensure that the
construction work meets the required standards and specifications. (Important Points for
a Civil Site Engineer: Maintaining the Quality of Work, 2018) mentions maintaining the
quality of work as a key responsibility.
 Problem Solving: Civil engineers address any technical challenges that arise during
construction, providing solutions and making necessary adjustments to the design.
 Coordination: They coordinate with various stakeholders involved in the project,
including contractors, subcontractors, and other engineers. (Xie & Liu, 2014) highlights
the importance of multitasking and coordination in large-scale construction.

3. Post-Construction Phase

 Inspection and Testing: Civil engineers conduct inspections and tests to ensure the
structural integrity and functionality of the completed structure.
 Maintenance and Repair: They develop maintenance plans and oversee repair work to
ensure the long-term performance and durability of the built environment.
 Documentation: Civil engineers maintain detailed records of the project, including
design drawings, construction logs, and maintenance reports.

4. Sustainable Development and Clean Energy

 Environmental Impact Assessment: Civil engineers assess the environmental impact

of construction projects and implement measures to mitigate any negative effects.
 (Hendrickson, 2012) mentions the emerging shift towards sustainable energy in civil
engineering.
 Green Building Design: They incorporate sustainable design principles into
construction projects, promoting energy efficiency and reducing environmental footprint.
 Renewable Energy Integration: Civil engineers play a key role in integrating renewable
energy sources into infrastructure projects, contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable
future. (Hendrickson, 2012) discusses the role of civil engineers in sustainable energy
challenges.

By fulfilling these diverse roles, civil engineers contribute significantly to the development and
maintenance of safe, sustainable, and resilient infrastructure that serves the needs of society.

1.5 Importance of Civil Engineering in Infrastructure Development of the Country:-

Civil Engineers play a major role in the infrastructure development of a country. All
structures constructed in the past exhibit the path of civilization and current infrastructures
development express the practices followed by civil engineers.
Infrastructure can be defined as activities that provide society with services necessary to
conduct daily life and to engage in productive activity and development in a country’s economy.
In a country like India, the major infrastructural. Factors that are most significant in accelerating
the pace of economic development are energy, transport, irrigation, finance, communications,
education, and health.
The knowledge of basic areas of civil engineering can be of great use in providing the
infrastructural facilities where constructional aspects are involved for development of regions.
 Good surface communication links such as tar or concrete rods.
 Provision of water supply distribution system i.e., construction of water storage
reservation or sumps, laying of underground pipes etc.
 Provision of a drainage system which may include construction of surface drains
as subsurface drains for the disposal of wastewater.
 Supply of electrical power for which construction of transmission line towers,
construction of electrical substations.
 Providing inland communications lines, i.e., telephone lines etc.
 Construction of recreational places e.g., gardens, parks etc.
1.6 TYPES OF BUILDING AS PER NBC (NATIONAL BUILDING CODE):-

Any structure made for whatsoever purpose with any material, used for human habitation or
not which included foundation, plinth, walls, floor, roofs, chimney, plumbing, and building
services, Verandah, Balcony, and cornice, etc. is called a building. Buildings are classified
based on occupance and type of construction:

A. RESIDENTIAL
B. EDUCATIONAL
C. INSTITUTIONAL
D. ASSEMBLY
E. BUSINESS
F. MERCANTILE (included retail and wholeshale store)
G. INDUSTRIAL (low, moderate and high fire hazards)
H. STORAGE
I. HAZARDOUS

1. Residential Buildings-

Any building in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal residential

purposes with or without cooking/dining. These are further classified as:
Group A-Residential
A1: Lodging or rooming houses.
A2: One or two-family private dwellings
A3: Dormitories
A4: Apartment houses
A5: Hotels (upto 4 star category)
A6: Hotels (Starred- five star and above)
 (i) Lodging and rooming houses- These are buildings in which separate sleeping
accommodation with or without a dining facility but without a cooking facility
is provided. For instance, Inns, Clubs, Motels, and Guesthouses.
(ii) One or two-family private dwelling- A private dwelling which is occupied by
members of one or two-family. Maximum sleeping accommodation is provided
for 20 persons.
(iii) Dormitories- Any building in which group sleeping accommodation is provided
with or without dining facilities. e.g., School and College Dormitories, Hostels,
and Military Barracks.
(iv) Apartment Houses- Buildings in which living quarters are provided for three or
more families having independent cooking facilities and living independently of
each other. e.g., apartments, Mansions, and Chowls.
(v) Hotels -Buildings in which sleeping accommodation is provided with or without
dining facilities for up to four-star categories (hotels).
(vi) Hotels (Starred) Normally five star and above by local authority.

2. Educational Buildings

Any building used for school, college, and other training institutions having a minimum
of 20 students.
(i) Schools up to Senior Secondary level Minimum students should be 20.
(ii) All others/training institute Minimum students should be 100.

3. Institutional Buildings-

Buildings that are used for medical or other treatment, care of persons suffering from
physical and mental illness, care of infants, for inmates etc are called institutional buildings
(i) Hospital and Sanatoria -Any building which is used for the treatment of patients

e.g., hospitals, sanatoria, infirmaries, and nursing homes.

(ii) Custodial Institutions Any building used for custody and care of a person for
instance children, old age homes, orphanages, etc
(iii) Penal and mental institutions Any building which is used for housing persons
whose liberty is restricted e.g., jails, prisons, mental hospitals, etc.
 4. Assembly Buildings

Any building in which a minimum of 50 persons gathers for recreational, amusement, social,
religious, patriotic purposes e.g., theatres, assembly halls, exhibition halls, museums,
estaurants, places of worship, etc.
These are classified into 7 types:
(i) The building having theatrical or motion pictures or any other stage having fixed
seats for over 1000 persons.
(ii) The building having theatrical or motion pictures or any other stage having fixed
seats for up to 1000 persons.
(iii) Buildings without a permanent stage having an accommodation for 300 or more
persons but no permanent seating arrangements.
(iv) All other structures including temporary structures designed for assembly of peoples.
(v) Buildings having mixed occupancies of assembly and mercantile (vi) Underground
and elevated mass rapid transit system.

5. Business Buildings

Any buildings used for the transaction of business, professional establishments, service
facilities, etc. are termed as business buildings.
These are further divided into 5 types –
(i) Offices, banks, professional establishments etc.
(ii) Laboratories, clinics, research establishments and libraries etc.
(iii) IT parks, call centers etc.
(iv) Telephone exchange
(v) Broadcasting stations, TV stations and air traffic control towers.

6. Mercantile Buildings
Any building which is used as a shop, store, market, etc. is known as mercantile buildings.
These are further classified as:
(i) Shops, stores, departmental stores, markets (covered area up to 500 sq. m ).
(ii) Shops, stores, departmental stores, markets (covered area more than 500 sq. m).
(iii) Underground shopping centres, storage and service facilities

7. Industrial Buildings
Any building in which products or materials are fabricated, assembled, manufactured, or
processed. For instance, assembly plants, industrial laboratories, power plants, pumping
stations, etc.
• Buildings for low hazard industry –

 Buildings in which those things are manufactured that have low

combustibility.

• Buildings for moderate hazard industry-

 Buildings in which those things are manufactured which will burn with
moderate rapidity.

• Buildings for high hazard industry-

 Buildings in which those things are manufactured which will burn with
extreme rapidity and results in hazardous situations.

8. STORAGE BUILDINGS
 Any building which is used for storage of goods, ware or merchandise, vehicles or
animals. e.g., warehouse, cold storage, garages, stables, etc.

9. HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS

 Buildings which are used for storage, handling, manufacture, or processing of highly
combustible or explosive material. For instance, manufacture of explosives and
fireworks, storage of highly flammable liquids, storage of LPG, rocket propellants,
etc.

1.7 SELECTION OF SITE FOR BUILDINGS: -

1. The soil of site should have good bearing capacity. Hard strata should be available
at reasonable depth, around 1.2m to1.5m depth from ground level.
2. The site should be on elevated ground. It should have slope towards front street
to afford good facility of drainage.
3. Sites nearer to ponds ,pools of water, water logged areas must be avoided as they
remain in damp condition .
4. Sites near to high voltage power transmission lines are avoided.
 5. Sites very nearer to big shopping complexes , markets, railway station ,airport are
avoided
6. The surrounding of site should be pleasing and calm.
7. The orientation of site should be such that it receives natural light and air in plenty.
8. The location of site is such that the common facilities like school, transportation,
medical facilities etc are within reasonable range.
9. Sites in developed colonies should be preferred.
10. The layout of the colony should be approved by local authorities. This will help
in getting essential facilities like water , drainage ,electricity, telephone
connection etc easily.

1.8 Basic Engineering Properties

Construction Materials: Properties and Uses
1. Earth

Properties: Earth as a construction material refers to soil. Its properties vary widely
depending on the composition, including clay, silt, sand, and gravel content. Key properties
include:

Compressive Strength: Generally low, suitable for lightly loaded structures.

Shear Strength: Resistance to sliding, influenced by moisture content and

compaction.

Permeability: Ability to transmit water, affecting drainage and stability.

Shrinkage/Swelling: Changes in volume with moisture content, potentially causing

cracking.

Uses: Rammed earth construction, adobe bricks, earth dams, embankments, and as a
stabilizing agent in other materials.

2. Bricks

Properties: Made from clay or shale, fired in kilns.

Compressive Strength: Moderate to high, depending on the type of brick.

Durability: Resistant to weathering and fire.

Water Absorption: Varies depending on the type of brick, affecting durability.

Uses: Walls, foundations, pavements, arches, and decorative elements. (Bechar, 2005)
(Jackson & Dhir, 1996) mention bricks as traditional building materials.

3. Timber

Properties: Natural material with varying properties depending on the species.

Tensile Strength: High strength-to-weight ratio.

Flexibility: Can bend and deform under load.

Durability: Susceptible to decay, insect attack, and fire unless treated.

Uses: Framing, flooring, roofing, furniture, and formwork. (Bechar, 2005) (Jackson & Dhir,
1996) list timber among traditional building materials.

4. Stones

Properties: Natural rock materials with high variability.

Compressive Strength: Generally high, suitable for load-bearing applications.

Durability: Highly resistant to weathering and abrasion.

Uses: Foundations, walls, retaining walls, paving, and decorative elements. (Bechar, 2005)
(Jackson & Dhir, 1996) include stones in their lists of traditional materials.

5. Sand

Properties: Granular material composed of fine rock and mineral particles.

Particle Size: Influences drainage and compaction properties.

Cleanliness: Presence of impurities can affect concrete strength.

Uses: Fine aggregate in concrete and mortar, backfilling, and filtration. (Bechar, 2005)
(Jackson & Dhir, 1996) mention sand as a component of mortar.

6. Aggregates

Properties: Granular materials, including sand, gravel, and crushed stone.

Particle Size and Gradation: Affects concrete workability and strength.

Strength and Durability: Contributes to the overall strength and durability of

concrete.

Uses: Key component of concrete, providing bulk and stability.

 7. Cement

Properties: Binding material that reacts with water to form a hardened paste.

Finely ground powder: Reacts chemically with water (hydration) to bind

aggregates.

Compressive Strength: Determines the strength of concrete.

Uses: Key ingredient in concrete and mortar. (Bechar, 2005) (Jackson & Dhir, 1996) discuss
cement as a crucial component of concrete.

8. Mortar

Properties: Mixture of cement, sand, and water, used as a binding agent.

Workability: Ease of application and shaping.

Bond Strength: Adhesion to bricks and other masonry units.

Uses: Joining bricks, blocks, and stones in masonry construction. (Bechar, 2005) (Jackson
& Dhir, 1996) mention mortar as a binding material in construction.

9. Concrete

Properties: Mixture of cement, aggregates, and water, hardened into a solid mass.

Compressive Strength: High compressive strength, suitable for load-bearing

applications.

Durability: Resistant to weathering and abrasion.

Versatility: Can be cast into various shapes and sizes.

Uses: Foundations, walls, slabs, beams, columns, pavements, and other structural elements.
(Fu et al., 2023) (Li et al., 2022) (Yang et al., 2017) (Sharma, 2021) discuss concrete as a
widely used construction material.

10. Steel

Properties: Alloy of iron and carbon, with high strength and ductility.

o Tensile Strength: Very high tensile strength.

Let's delve into the properties and uses of Fiber Reinforced Polymer:

11. Fiber Reinforced Polymer-

FRP stands for Fiber Reinforced Polymer. It's a composite material consisting of strong fibers
embedded in a polymer matrix. The fibers provide the tensile strength and stiffness, while the
matrix holds the fibers together, protects them from damage, and distributes loads. This
combination results in a material that is strong, lightweight, and durable.

Properties: Composites consisting of high-strength fibers embedded in a polymer matrix. The

fibers provide tensile strength and stiffness, while the matrix protects the fibers and distributes
loads. Key properties include:

 High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Stronger and lighter than traditional materials like
steel and concrete. (Uomoto et al., 2002)(Matsumoto et al., 2017)
 Corrosion Resistance: Resistant to environmental degradation, making them suitable
for harsh conditions. (Uomoto et al., 2002)
 Fatigue Resistance: Perform well under cyclic loading.
 Design Flexibility: Can be molded into complex shapes, offering design versatility.
(Matsumoto et al., 2017)

Uses: A wide range of structural applications, including:

 Reinforcement for Concrete: Used to strengthen existing concrete structures or as

primary reinforcement in new construction. (Uomoto et al., 2002)(Ferrari et al., 2013)
 Bridge Construction: Used in bridge decks, girders, and other components due to their
light weight and corrosion resistance. (Ji et al., 2010)
 Building Construction: Used in beams, columns, and other structural elements.
 Marine Structures: Resistant to saltwater corrosion, making them suitable for docks,
piers, and other marine applications.

Different types of fibers and matrices can be used to create FRP composites with varying
properties, tailored to specific applications. For example, glass fiber reinforced polymers are
commonly used in construction due to their cost-effectiveness, while carbon fiber reinforced
polymers offer higher strength and stiffness but are more expensive. (Uomoto et al.,
2002)(Matsumoto et al., 2017)(Ferrari et al., 2013)

1.6 COMPONENTS OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

Building component means any subsystem, subassembly, or other system designed for use in,
or as part of, a structure, which may include structural, electrical, mechanical, plumbing, and
fire protection systems and other systems affecting health and safety.
The basic function of a building is to provide structurally sound and environmentally
controlled spaces to house and protect occupants and contents.A building is combination
of various components. A Civil Engineer should have good knowledge of execution of each
and every component with respect to design layouts given by Architect.
The following are the basic component parts of a residential building:-

1. Foundation
2. Plinth
3. Walls and columns
4. Sills, lintels and Chajja s
5. Doors and windows
6. Floors
7. Roofs
8. Steps, stairs and lifts
9. Finishing work
10. Building services.
11. Parapet

The functions of these elements and the main requirement of them are discussed below-
1. Foundation:
Foundation is the most important part of the building. Building activity starts
with digging the ground for foundation and then building it. It is the lower most part of the
building. It transfers the load of the building to the ground. Its main functions and
requirements are:
(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil evenly and safely.
(b) To anchor the building to the ground so that under lateral loads building will not move.
(c) It prevents the building from overturning due to lateral forces.
(d) It gives level surface for the construction of super structure.

2. Plinth:
 The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called
plinth. It is usually of stone masonry. If the foundation is on piles, a plinth beam is cast
to support wall above floor level. At the top of plinth, a damp proof course is provided.
It is usually 75 mm thick plain concrete course.
 The function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor above ground level, free of
dampness. Its height is not less than 450 mm. It is required that plinth level is at least
150 mm above the road level, so that connections to underground drainage system can
be made.
[Link] and Columns:-
The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load of the structure vertically downwards
to transfer it to foundation. Apart from this wall performs the following functions also:
(a) It encloses building area into different compartments and provides privacy.
(b) It provides safety from burglary and insects.
(c) It keeps the building warm in winter and cool in summer.

4. Sills, Lintels and Chajja’s:-

• A window frame should not be directly placed over masonry. It is placed over 50
mm to 75 mm thick plain concrete course provided over the masonry. This course
is called as sill.
• Lintels are the R.C.C. or stone beams provided over the door and window
openings to transfer the load transversely so as to see that door or window frame
is not stressed unduly. The width of lintels is equal to the width of wall while
thickness to be provided depends upon the opening size.

• Chajja is the projection given outside the wall to protect doors and windows from
the rain. They are usually made with R.C.C. In low cost houses stone slabs are
provided as Chajja s. The projection of Chajja varies from 600 mm to 800 mm.
Sometimes drops are also provided to Chajja s to improve aesthetic look and also to
get additional protection from sun and rain.
5. Doors and Windows: -
• The function of a door is to give access to different rooms in the building and to deny
the access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The
size of the door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the
largest object likely to use the door.
• Windows are provided to get light and ventilation in the building. They are located
at a height of 0.75 m to 0.9 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the
window area should be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area. Another thumb rule used
to determine the size and the number of windows is for every 30 sq. m of inside
volume there should be 1 sq. m window opening.
6. Floors:-
• Floors are the important component of a building. They give working/useful area for
the occupants. The ground floor is prepared by filling brick bats, waste stones, gravel
and well compacted with not less than 100 mm sand layer on its top. A lean concrete
of 1 : 4 : 8, 100 mm thick is laid. On this a damp proof course may be provided. Then
floor finishing is done as per the requirement of the owner.
• Cheapest floor finish for a moderate house is with 20 to 25 mm rich mortar course
finished with red oxide. The costliest floor finish is mosaic or marble finishing. Other
floors are usually of R.C.C. finished as per the requirements of the owner.
7. Roof:-
• Roof is the top most portion of the building which provide top cover to the building.
It should be leak proof. Sloping roof like tiled and A.C. sheet give leak proof cover
easily. But they do not give provision for the construction of additional floor. Tiled
roof gives good thermal protection. Flat roofs give provision for additional floors.
Terrace adds to the comfort of occupants. Water tanks can be easily placed over the
flat roofs.

8. Step, Stairs and Lifts:-

• Steps give convenient access from ground level to ground floor level. They are
required at doors in the outer wall. 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise is ideal size
for steps. In no case the size of two consecutive steps be different. Number of steps
required depends upon the difference in the levels of the ground and the floor.
 • Stairs give access from floor to floor. They should consist of steps of uniform sizes.
In all public buildings lifts are to be provided for the conveniences of old and disabled
persons.
• In hostels G + 3 floors can be without lifts. Lift is to be located near the entrance.
Size of the lift is decided by the number of users in peak hours. Lifts are available
with capacity 4 to 20 persons.
10. Finishing:-
• Bottom portion of slab (ceiling), walls and top of floor need smooth finishing with
plaster. Then they are provided with white wash, distemper or paints or tiles.
The function of finishing work is: o Give protective cover o Improve aesthetic view
o Rectify defective workmanship o Finishing work for plinth consists in pointing
while for floor it consists in polishing.
• Building Services:-
• Water supply, sanitation and drainage works, electric supply work and
construction of cupboards and show cases constitute major building services.
• For storing water from municipal supply or from tanker a sump is built in the house
property near street. From the sump water is pumped to overhead tanks placed on or
above roof level so as to get water all the 24 hours. Plumbing work is made so as to
get water in kitchen, bathrooms, water closets, sinks and garden taps. For draining
rain water from roofs, down take pipes of at least 100 mm diameters should be used.
Proper slopes should be given to roof towards down take pipe. These pipes should be
fixed at 10 to 15 mm below the roof surface so that rain water is directed to the down
take pipe easily.

• The sanitary fittings are to be connected to stone ware pipes with suitable traps and
chambers. Stone ware pipes are then connected to underground drainage of municipal
lines or to the septic tank.
• Many carpentry works are required for building service. They are in the form of
showcases, cupboards, racks etc.
• Electric supply is essential part of building services. The building should be provided
with sufficient points for supply of lights, fans and other electric gadgets.
[Link]:-
 The parapet is a minor wall around the edge of a roof, balcony, terrace, or stairway,
usually covering the roof’s perimeter. It protects the top and pre-built structures from
corrosion and degradation.

1.7 INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL BUILDING AND TYPES-

• Any building structure used by the industry to store raw materials or for
manufacturing products of the industry is known as an industrial building.

• Industrial buildings are generally used for steel plants, automobile industries, utility
and process industries, thermal power stations, warehouse, assembly plants, storage,
garages, etc.
Factors Considered while Selecting Site For Industrial Building:-

• Site should be located on an arterial road.

• Local availability of raw material.
• Facilities like water supply, electricity
• Topography of an area
• Soil conditions with respect to foundation design
• Waste disposal facilities
• Transportation facilities
• Sufficient space for storage of raw materials

Types of Industrial Building

1. Warehouses
2. Cold Storage Buildings
3. Telecom Centres or Data Hosting Centres
4. Flex Buildings
5. Light Manufacturing Buildings
6. Research And Development Set up

1. Warehouse
• There are buildings that are used for storing goods on behalf of other companies.
These are called warehouses. Although warehouses can be of different sizes, they are
usually large and are located outside city limits. They can have more than one storey
and can have loading docks, huge parking lots of big trucks. They can also have a
small office set up inside the premises.
• These typical single-story warehouses range in size from 5,000 to hundreds of
thousands of square feet and are used for the storage and transport of goods. Ceilings
are generally at least 60 feet high because of the necessary racking and storage systems
concealed beneath its roof. Loading docks, big truck doors, and parking areas for
semi-trailers used for distribution are among the other important elements of an
industrial building.
2. Cold Storage Buildings-
• Refrigeration and cold storage facilities are distribution centres dedicated to food
items like meat, produce, and dairy. These buildings provide rooms for cooling and
freezing in order to maintain goods at the right temperatures before they are sent out.
Other key features include docks with special seals to keep products cool, as well as
insulated overhead doors that keep them frozen.
• These are especially built to store large amounts of food products and keep them under
refrigerated conditions for long periods. These buildings are located mostly along
state and national highways and in places where there is good supply of electricity.
3. Telecom/Data Hosting Centers (Switching Centers, Cyber Centers, Web Hosting
Facilities, Telecom Centers )

 These highly specialized industrial buildings are located close to major

communications trunk lines to allow for access to an extremely large and redundant
power supply capable of powering extensive computer servers and telecom switching
equipment.

4. FLEX BUILDING:-
• This is the newest addition to the category of industrial segment of industrial real
estate and is a result of the evolving needs of modern times. These flex building have
more than one usage and can accommodate a Rand D facility, an office set up,
light manufacturing and even showroom spaces. They are flexible in nature and some
of the uses can be changed by making simple modifications.

• FLEX Building Systems is committed to providing flexible, superior building

systems for a variety of applications. Flex buildings often incorporate different areas
or spaces in a design, optimised for different purposes and needs. This can be either
an uninsulated or insulated warehouse, workshop, garage or even a showroom,
often in combination with one or more offices. The buildings often have to balance
complex solutions for production, cold storage and heating. Flex space buildings are
mainly of three types - Research and Development buildings, Data centre
buildings, and Show rooms.
5. LIGHT MANUFACTURING BUILDING:-

These buildings can be used in processing food items or assembly of light machinery like
fans, water pumps, gadgets, etc. These are generally small in size as compared to heavy
industrial buildings and do not have blast furnace, high capacity exhaust systems etc. These
buildings can sometimes find alternative uses like a unit making water pumps can be
converted in to assembly unit for gadget by making changes in the some of the installed
machinery.
6. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT BUILDING:-
Research and Development (R&D) forms an integral part of many businesses and they like to
set up their own R&D centres which cater to their specific requirements. A lot of life sciences
companies have their R&D centres which are usually owned by them. These centres are
generally not in the centre of the city. Companies can house their scientists and other staff in
these centres and hence there are residential elements in this kind of a set up. There can also
be elements of office buildings in a R&D centre. Sometimes these centres run on rented
buildings also but the lease period is usually long.
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7. SHOWROOM BUILDINGS:-

A showroom, also referred to as a gallery, is a large space used to display products or show
entertainment. A showroom is a large space used to display products for sale, such as
automobiles, furniture, appliances, carpet or apparel. It is a retail store of a company in
which products are on sale in a space created by their brand or company. There are many
types of showroom buildings like jewellery shops, malls, large vehicle showroom, furniture
showrooms etc.