EEE1001-Electric Circuits and

Systems

Presenter - Dr. Rupesh, Senior Member-IEEE

Assistant Professor Grade 1
School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
VIT Bhopal University
Module-2: AC Circuits Analysis

✓ Fundamentals of AC waveforms (average, rms, peak)

✓ AC Circuit Analysis & Phasors: RL, RC, RLC - Series and parallel,
Resonance.
✓ Natural and forced responses in First order and Second order
systems.
Sinusoidal voltage is common in electrical engineering.
Consider a linear ac circuit having one or more sinusoidal inputs
having same frequency as shown in given Fig. The amplitudes and
phase angles of the inputs may be different while their frequency
should be same.

The output what we are interested in may be voltage across an

element or current through an element. The output waveform will
be sinusoidal with the same frequency as the input signals.
SINUSOIDS

While analyzing the ac circuits, we shall deal with sinusoidal

voltages and currents. Sinusoidally varying quantities are
generally called as SINUSOIDS.

A typical voltage sinusoids is described by

v(t) = vm sin ( ωt + φ )

Alternatively they can be specified as

v(t) = vm cos ( ωt + φ )

Thus a sinusoid is described in terms of

i) its maximum value, which is also called as amplitude,vm
ii) its angular frequency, ω and
iii) its phase angle, φ.
Frequency (f)
The number of cycles the sinusoid makes in one second is called the
frequency (f) of the sinusoid. Thus the unit for the frequency is
cycles per second which is also commonly known as hertz (Hz).

Period (T)
The time taken by the sinusoid to complete one cycle is called the
period (T) of the sinusoid. When the supply frequency is 50 Hz, the
sinusoid makes 50 cycles in one second. Then the period (time per
cycle) is 1/50 sec. The frequency and the period of sinusoid are
related as

Angular frequency
In one cycle the angle covered is 2π radians. When the frequency is
f cycles per second, the angle covered in one second will be 2π
radians. The angular frequency of sinusoid is represented by ω and
its unit is radians per second. Thus ω = 2π f
Example

Consider the voltage sinusoid

Find the amplitude, phase, angular frequency, frequency, and

period.

Solution:
Amplitude vm = 70 V

Angular frequency ω = 50 π rad. per sec.

Frequency

Period
RESISTOR

Let the voltage v(t) across the resistor terminals be

The current through it is given by

Expressing the equations of voltage and current in phasor form

we get

The impedance of an element is defined as the ratio of the

phasor voltage across it to the phasor current through it.
Thus in the case of a resistor, voltage-current relationship is
V=RI
Representation of resistor in time frame and its phasor form are
shown in Fig.

It is to be noted that, both the voltage V and the current I have

the same phase angle of 00.
INDUCTOR

For the inductor, the voltage-current relationship is

In steady state, let the current through it be

Expressing the above two equations in phasor form we have

The impedance of the inductor is given by

where XL = ωL
Thus, the terminal relationship of an inductor in phasor form is
V = j XL I

Representation of inductor in time frame and its phasor form are

shown in Fig

It is to be noted that as seen by the current and voltage

equations, the voltage V leads the current I by a phase angle of
900. Generally it is a practice to say how the current phasor is
with respect to voltage phasor. Thus in the case of an inductor,
the current through it lags the voltage across it by 900.
The phasor diagram and the voltage and current wave forms are
shown in Fig. below.

The steady state impedance corresponding to the inductance L is j

XL where XL= ωL. The quantity XL is known as the inductive
reactance.
CAPACITOR

For the capacitor, the voltage-current relationship is

In steady state, let the voltage across it be

Expressing the above two equations in phasor form we have

Impedance of the capacitor is:

Thus, the terminal relationship of a capacitor in phasor form is

V = - j XC I

Representation of capacitor in time frame and its phasor form are

shown in Fig.
It is to be noted that as seen by the voltage and current
equations, the current I leads the voltage V, by a phase angle of
900. Thus, in the case of a capacitor, the current through it leads
the voltage across it by 900. The phasor diagram and the voltage
and current wave forms are shown in Fig. below.

The steady state impedance corresponding to capacitance C is - j

XC where

The quantity XC is known as the capacitive reactance.

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

As a complex quantity, the impedance may be expressed in

rectangular form as Z = R + j X

where R is the resistance and X is the reactance. The reactance X

may be inductive or capacitive. Thus, the impedance Z = R + j X is
said to be inductive, while the impedance Z = R - j X is capacitive.
The impedance, resistance and reactance are all measured in
ohms. Impedance can be expressed in polar form as
The connecting relations are:

Satisfying above relations, resistance R, reactance X and │Z│ shall

form three sides of a right angle triangle known as Impedance
Triangle. Impedance triangles for inductive and capacitive
impedances are shown in Figs.

Impedance triangles for inductive Impedance triangles for capacitive

impedances impedances
If two impedances Z1 and Z2are connected in series as shown in
Fig., then the equivalent impedance is
Zeq = Z1 + Z2

This could be generalized to n number of impedances connected in series as

As a special case, if there are n equal impedances of value Z connected in series, then the
equivalent impedance is

Zeq = n Z
Fig. shows two impedances Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel.
The equivalent resistance Zeq is obtained from

If n number of impedances Z1, Z2, …., Zn are connected in

parallel, the equivalent impedance is obtained from
While dealing with the parallel circuit, it is also useful to define
another quantity called admittance. Admittance is defined as the
reciprocal of the impedance and it is denoted by Y. Thus

When the admittance Y is written in rectangular form as

Y = G + j B.
G is called as conductance and B is called as susceptance. The unit
of G, B and Y are mho or Siemens and is denoted by or S.

When two impedances Z1 and Z2 are connected in parallel

Thus equivalent admittance Yeq is given by Yeq = Y1 + Y2

where Y1 and Y2 are the admittances corresponding to the
impedances Z1 and Z2 respectively.

When n number of admittances Y1,Y2,…….., Yn are connected in

parallel, the above equation can by generalized as

Yeq = Y1 + Y2 +…………..+ Yn

Similarly if there are n equal admittances of value Y connected in

parallel, then the equivalent admittance is

Yeq = n Y
Summary

Analysis of AC circuits

✓ Sinusoidal voltage
✓ Amplitude, phase, angular frequency, frequency, and period
✓ Phasors
✓ Resistor, inductor, capacitor
✓ Impedance and admittance
✓ Delta to star and star to delta conversion of impedance
INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE POWER

Sinusoidal source connected to a passive linear circuit is shown in

above Fig.
Let the sinusoidal voltage be

Equivalent circuit impedance will be of the form R + j X or R - j X.

Let us assume the equivalent impedance is inductive so that we
can write as
Instantaneous current becomes

Impedance angle θ is the same as the angle between voltage and

current phasors.

Thus, instantaneous power consumed by the circuit is

Average power over a period T is obtained as

The first integrant is constant and the average of a constant is the
same constant. The second integrant is a double frequency
sinusoidal. The average of a sinusoid over a period is zero. Thus
the second term vanishes and the average power becomes

Thus average power consumed by the circuit is

REAL, REACTIVE, APPARENT POWERS AND POWER
FACTOR

Again consider the general case of instantaneous power

associated with the arbitrary combination of circuit elements
under sinusoidal excitation. The product of magnitudes of phasor
voltage and phasor current is │V││I│ and its unit is Volt Ampere.
However, actual power absorbed by the load is │V│ │I│ cos θ.
Since the value of cos θ is always less than or equal to one, it is
clear that only a fraction of the volt ampere taken by the load, is
absorbed as real power by the load. Historically

│V││I│ is called as Apparent Power represented by the symbol

│S│
│V│ │I│ cos θ is called as Real Power and its symbol is P and
│V│ │I│ sin θ is called as Reactive Power represented by the
symbol Q.
Their units are Volt Ampere (VA), Watts (W) and Volt Ampere
Reactive (VAR) respectively. It is to be noted that │S│, P and Q
form three sides of a right angle triangle known as Power
Triangle.
Remembering that the impedance angle θ is positive for inductive
load and is negative for the capacitive load, the reactive power Q
will be positive for inductive load and negative for capacitive load.
Power triangles for inductive and capacitive load are shown in Fig.
(a) and (b).

Power triangles for inductive and capacitive loads.

It is to be noted that knowing any two of P, Q, │S│ and θ, values
of other two can be obtained from the right angled triangles
shown.

Real power P = │V│ │I│ cos θ

Reactive power Q =│V││I│ sin θ

Apparent power │S│ = │V││I│

It is to be noted that, Apparent power is the magnitude of the
complex power.
Real power P = │V│ │I│ cos θ
Apparent power │S│ = │V││I│
Power Factor (p.f.) is the ratio of real power to apparent power.
Thus

By this definition, it is not possible to distinguish whether the

load is inductive or capacitive. Therefore it is necessary to include
the nature of the power factor while mentioning the power
factor. When the load is inductive, current lags the voltage and
power factor is said to be lagging. On the other hand, if the load is
capacitive, power factor is said to be leading.
RL CIRCUITS

Consider the steady state equivalent of RL circuit shown in Fig.

Let us take the supply voltage as reference.

Then

Circuit impedance is

Circuit current
Voltages across the parameters are

Using KVL, it is seen that

Phasor diagram of RL circuit

(b). Impedance triangle of RL

(a). Phasor diagram of RL
circuit
circuit

Consider the triangle formed by VR, VL and E. Their magnitudes are

|VR| = R │I│; |VL| = XL │I│ and |E| = |Z| │I│. If each magnitude is
divided by │I│, then R, XL and │Z│ should form a triangle as shown
in Fig. (b). This triangle is known as impedance triangle.
RC CIRCUITS

Similar to the discussion on RL circuit, we shall now analyze the

RC circuit. The steady state equivalent of RC circuit is shown in
Fig. below.

Let us take the supply voltage as reference. Then

Circuit impedance is
Voltages across the parameters are

Using KVL, it is seen that

VR + VC = E
Phasor diagram of RC circuit

Impedance triangle of RC circuit

Phasor diagram of RC circuit.

It is to be noted that VR, VC and E form three sides of a right angle

triangle. The three sides are |VR| = R │I│; |VC| = XC │I│ and |E| =
|Z| │I│. If each side is divided by │I│, we have R, XC and │Z│ and
they form a right angle triangle as shown in Fig. It is the
impedance triangle of RC circuit.
RLC CIRCUITS

Steady state equivalent of RLC series circuit is shown in Fig.

The impedance of this circuit Z = R + j (XL - XC)

Depending on the relative values of XL and XC, the following three
cases are possible.

1. If XL = XC the circuit behaves as a pure resistive circuit.

2. If XL > XC the circuit behaves as a RL circuit and
3. If XL < XC the circuit behaves as a RC circuit.
Case 1

The inductive reactance gets cancelled with the capacitive

reactance. Total impedance

Voltages across the parameters are

When KVL is applied to this circuit

The phasor diagram for this case is shown in Fig

Phasor diagram of RLC series circuit with XL = XC.

Case 2
Case 2

It is to be noted that VL and VC are 1800 out of phase and │VL│ >
│VC│. The phasor diagram of RLC series circuit with XL > XC is
shown in Fig.

Phasor diagram of RLC series circuit with XL > XC.

Case 3
It is to be noted that VL and VC are 1800 out of phase and │VL│ <
│VC│. The phasor diagram of RLC series circuit with XL < XC is
shown in Fig.

Phasor diagram of RLC series circuit with XL < XC.

SERIES RESONANCE

Before discussing the general theory on series resonance let us

see in detail how a series RLC circuit behaves when the frequency
of the source voltage changes. For this purpose let us take up the
following example from which a number of conclusions can be
drawn.

Example
Consider RLC series circuit with R = 100 Ω, L = 1.0 H and C = 1.0
μF. It is connected to 500 V variable frequency supply. For a range
of ω = 800 to 1200 rad/s in steps of 100 rad. per sec., compute
the values of XL, XC, Z, │Z│,θ, power factor and │I│. Plot the
calculated values of XL, XC │Z│ and │I│. Mark the region of leading
and lagging power factor. For ω = 1000 rad/s, find the values of
voltages across the inductance and capacitance. List out
conclusion arrived at.
SINUSOIDS
From the results of this example, the following conclusions are
arrived at.

As the angular frequency increases from a low value to high value

1. Inductive reactance XL increases.
2. Capacitive reactance XC decreases.
[Link] of the impedance │Z│ decreases, reaches a
minimum equal to resistor value and then increases.
4. The impedance angle increases, from large negative value,
becomes zero and becomes more and more positive.
5. Power factor changes from leading to unity and then becomes
lagging.
6. Magnitude of the current increases, reaches a maximum value
and then decreases.
Resonance in a series RLC circuit is a particular situation in which
the capacitive and inductive reactances are equal in magnitude,
thereby resulting in purely resistive impedance.

Consider steady state series RLC circuit connected to a variable

frequency voltage source as shown below.
This circuit will be at resonance when its complex impedance
consists only of resistance. Thus the resonance will occur at the
angular frequency ω0 given by
At the resonance condition, circuit impedance and circuit currents
are

Further, at the resonance condition, circuit power factor is unity

and voltages

Resonance condition of, circuit impedance becomes a resistance,

can be achieved by varying the value of any one of the quantities
ω, L and C.
Problem

A variable frequency 200 V supply is connected to a RLC series

circuit with R = 10 Ω, L = 10 mH and C = 1 μF. For resonance
condition, calculate the current and the voltages across R, L and
C. Take the supply voltage as reference.
Quality Factor
ω1 ω0 ω2
As seen from the above Fig, there are clearly two frequencies ω1
and ω2 for which power absorbed is equal to P0 / 2. These two
frequencies are known as Half Power Frequencies. ω1 is the lower
half power frequency and ω2 is the higher half power frequency.
Power absorbed between the frequencies ω1 and ω2 is greater
than P0 / 2. Thus
Problem