| SATYA PRAKASH MeesChapter 1. Vectors (With Applications) 2. Matrices 3. Tensors 4. The Beta, Gamma and Error Functions 5. Infinite Series * Complex Variables 1. Differential Equations and Special Functions $3) Fourier Series and Integrals S . Partial Differential Equations in Physics 10. Fourier’s and Laplace’s Integral Transforms 11. Dirac Delta Function and Green’s Function 12, Probability, Statistics and Theory of f Errors 13. Group Theory 14. Numerical Analysis 15. Classical Mechanics 16. Special Theory of Relativity 17. Quantum Mechanics Brief Contents Pages 1—132 133—230 231—315 316—347 348—351-9 352—481 482643 644698 699—819 820—901 902—931 932—997 9981044 1045—10999 1100—1319 13111395Contents Chapters ieee 3 1. VECTORS (WITH APPLICATIONS) 1-1. Review of Vector Algebra (@) Addition of Vectors 2 (b) Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar 2 (c) Orthogonal Resolution of Vectors 2 (d) Rotation of Coordinates 2 (e) Product of Two Vectors 2 () Some Physical Applications of the Product of two, Vectors s (g) Product of Three Vectors ue (h) Product of Four Vectors 13 (i) Reciprocal System of Vectors 1s () Differentiation of Vectors 16 1-2. Gradient of a Scalar Field 28 34 13. Line, Surface and Volume Integrals 1-4, Divergence of a Vector Function 1.5. Curl of a Vector Function and its Physical Significance. »j 1-6. Important Vector Identities 1:7. Gauss Divergence Theorem 1-8. Deductions from Gauss Divergence Theorem 1.9. Stoke's Theorem 1-10. Deductions from Stoke’s Theorem 5 111, Green's Theorem ne sper emcee a 1-12, Green's Theorem inaPlane SS 1-13, Classification of Vector Fields 1-14, Helmholtz Theorem 1-15. Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates 1-16, Unit Vecots in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 1-17. Expressions for Velocity and Accleration in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 95 97 81 93 1-18. Linear Vector Space 1-19. Applications of Vectors to (a) Hydrodynamics 1 » 106 (6) The Equation of Heat Flow in Solids : Fourier’s Heat Flow Equation a (c) Gravitation ‘a (@) Electromagnetic field HM AES 59 Exercises with Multiple Choice QuestionsSSSA ES acs iti) 2, MATRICES 241. Introduction ; , 22. Review of Algebraic ‘(Operations of Matrices 2:3. Sub-matrices 3 2-4, Partitioning of Matrices 2.5, Special Types of Matrices 216, Transpose of a Matrix 7, ‘The Conjugate of a Matrix ‘ ; te coil ‘Transpose (or the Transposed Conjugate) of a Matt , netric Matrices 2.9. Symmetric and Antisymmel 2 2.10, Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Matrices 211. Determinant of a Matrix 212, Cofactors of a determinant 2:13. Minors of a Matrix 2:14, Singular and Non-singular Matrices 2.15. Adjoint of a Matrix 2:16. Invertible Matrices : Inverse of a Matrix 2.17. Orthogonal Matrices 2:18, Unitary Matrices 219. Trace of a Matrix 2:20. Elementary Operations 2-21. Elementary Matrices 2:22. Equivalent Matrices 2:23. Rank of a Matrix 2:24. Reduction of a non-zero matrix to normal form 225. The Rank of a Product 2:26. Vectors as Matrices and Vector-spaces 2:27. Solution of Linear Equations 228. Linear Transformations 2:29. Orthogonal and Unitary Transformations 2:30. Similarity Transformation 231. Eigen Values, Eigen-Vectors ; Characteristi tf i ae cee ana icteristic Equation of a Matrix 2:33. Stochastic Matrices 2:34. Some important theorems on Bij i 2:35. Diagonalization of Matrices Hee valet ieee 236. Differentiation and Integration of Matrices 2:37. Power of Matrix 2:38. Exponential of a Matrix 2-39. Matrices in Physics Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 133 134 137 143 151 155 166 169 173 176 179 181 193 194 194 197 204 208 208 213 215 215 216 217 221—230bys 3-1. 3:2. 33. 34. 35. 3-6. 37. 3:8. 3:10. 3-11. 312. au3¢ 314. 31S. 3-17. 3-18. 3-19. 3-20. 3-21. 3-22. 3-23. 3-24, 3.25. 3-26. 3-27. 3-28. 3-29. 3:30. 331. 3:32, 3-33. 3:34, 3-35. 3-36, 3-37. 3-38, (ix) 3. TENSORS Introduction n-dimensional Space Superscripts and Subscripts Coordinate Transformations Indicial and Summation Conventions Dummy and Real Indices Kronecker Delta Symbol Scalars, Contravariant Vectors and Covariant Vectors . Tensors of Higher Ranks Algebraic Operations of Tensors Symmetric and Antisymmetric Tensors Dyadics Invariant Tensors gin, 2”, gt Conjugate or Reciprocal Tensors Relative and Absolute Tensors . Line Element : Metric Tensor Fundamental Tensors Raising and Lowering of Indices; Associated Tensors 231 232 232 232 233 233 233 235 237 240, 249 254 255 257 258 259 260 262 Length of a Vector, Angle between two Vectors and Condition of Orthogonality of Vectors Christoffel’s 3-index symbols Transformation Laws of Christoffel’s Symbols Geodesics Covariant Differentiation of Vectors Covariant Differentiation of Tensors of Higher Rank Covariant Derivatives of the Fundamental Tensors Laws of Covariant differentiation Covariant Derivative of a Scalar (or Invariant) Tensor form of Gradient, Divergence, Laplacian and Curl Divergence of a Tensor Intrinsic Derivatives Geodesic Coordinates Riemann Christoffel’s Tensor (The Curvature Tensor) Convariant Curvature Tensor and its Properties ‘The Number of algebraically independent components of the Curvature tensor R piv, Contraction of Riemann-Christoffel tensor Bianchi Identities Contraction of Bianchi Identities : The Einstein Tensor Simple Applications of Tensors to Non-Relativistic Physics Exercises (with Multiple Choice Questions) 263 268 269 276 280 282 283 284 285 287 290 291 292 294 295 297 298 299 301 306—315WSS OSL LOR RSS @) 4, THE BETA, GAMMA AND ERROR FUNCTIONS 4:1. Definitions 316 (a) The Beta Function 316 (b) The Gamma Function 316 (c) The Error Function 316 4.2, Symmetry Property of Beta Function Bis 4:3, Evaluation of Beta Function : 317 4-4, Transformation of Beta Function (Other Forms of Beta Function) 317 45, Evaluation of Gamma Function 318 46, Transformation of Gamma Function (Other Forms of Gamma Function) ; 319 ~ 47. Relation between Beta and Gamma Functions 320 48. Evaluation of Miscellaneous Integrals 320 4:9. Miscellaneous Important Prepositions 326 4:10. Graph of Gamma Function i 328 411. Evaluation of Error Function : 339 Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 342—347 5. INFINITE SERIES * 51. Introduction 348 5:2. Definitions : Sequence, Series, Finite Series and Infinite Series 348 5:3. Classification of Infinite Series 348 5-4. Geometric Series 349 5:5. Harmonic Series 350 56. Theorem Regarding the auxiliary series 350 5-7. Properties of an Infinite Series 351 5-8. Convergence Tests 351-A (a) Comparison Test 351A (b) Theorem for Application of Comparison Test 351-B (©) Cauchy (or D’Alemberts’) Ratio Test 351-D (d) Cauchy's Root Test 351-F (€) Cauchy's (or Maclaurin) Integral Test 351-1 59. Alternating Series 351K 5:10. Absolute Convergence 35L-L 5-11, Uniform Convergence 351-L. Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 351-M—351-0 6. COMPLEX VARIABLES 6-1. Complex Numbers a0 62. Review of Algebraic Operations of Complex Numbers 352 6:3. Complex Conjugates a 6-4. Modulus and Argument of a Complex Number 63 65. Graphical Representation on Argand Diagram and Trigonometrig Form 354 6-6. Some Definitions Underlying Complex Analysis 35767. 68. 69, 6:10. 6-11. 612. 613. 614. 6:15, 6-16. 617. 618. 619. 6-20. 621, 622. 623. 6-24. 6-25. 626. Tl. T2 73. TA, 74, 73 & TS. 76. 17. 78. (x Functions of a ‘Complex Variable 358 Limit, Continuity and Differentiability 359 Definition : Analytic function 361 eee an Sufi Conon fot 2) to Be Analytic! a Laplace's Equation; Harmonic Functions 364 Line Integral of a Complex Function 376 A Few Preliminary Concepts 379 Cauchy's Integral Theorem 380 Evaluation of Line Integrals by Indefinite Integration 386 Cauchy's Integral Formula 388 Derivatives of an Analytic Function 391 Morera’s Theorem 395 Liowville’s Theorem 395 Taylor's Series 396 Laurent’s series — ---- —_______—— 400 Singularities of an Analytic Function 407 Residues and their Evaluation 412 Cauchy Residue Theorem 420 Evaluation of Definite Integrals 421 (q) Define Integrals of Trigonometric Functions of cos @ and sin @ 423 (b) Evaluation of Certain Improper Real Integrals 432 (©) Evaluation of Infinite Integrals by Jordan’s Lemma 440 (d) Evaluation of Infinite Integrals when Integrand has Poles on Real Axis. 446 (e) Evaluation of Integrals Involving Many-Valued Functions 453 (f) Use of Contour Integration for Deducing Integrals from Known Integrals 456 Miscellaneous Solved Examples on Contour Integration, 460 Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 469481 7, DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND SPECIAL FUNCTIONS Introduction 482 Order and Degree of a Differential Equation 483 Solution of First Order Differential Equation by the Method of Separation of Variables 484 Linear Differential Equation of First Order and its Solution 485 (a) Solution of Linear Differential Equation of First Order by the Method of Integrating Factor 486 (b) Solution of First Order Differential Equation Reducible to Linear Form (Bernoulli's Equation) 487 Solution of Second order differential equations with constant coefficients 488 Method of Variation of Parameters 499 Singular Points of Differential Equations a” Self Adjoint Differential Equation= a (xii) 7.9. Power Series Solution 7:10. Linear Independence of Solutions 7-11. Orthogonal Set of Functions and Expansion “Theorer, 7-12. Legendre Differential Equation and Legendre Functions 7-13, Generating Function of Legendre Polynomial 7:14, Rodrigue's Formula for Legendre Polynomials T-15. Orthogonal Properties of Legendre's Polynomials 7-16. Recurrence Formulae for P,(x) 7-17. Laplace's Integrals for P,(x) 718. Trigonometric Series for P(x) 7.19. Christoffel’ s Expansion 7-20. Expansion of an Arbitrary Function in 721. Associated Legendre Polynomials 7:22. Bessel’s Differentiation Equation; Bessel’s Functions of First and Second Kind 7-23. Limiting Values of J, (x) and ¥, (x) 7-24, Differential Equations Reducible to Bessel’s Equation 12S. Bessel’s Functions of third kind: Hankel Functions 7.26, Recurrence formulae for Jn (2) 727, Generating Function for J, (x) 7.28. Jacobi Series 729. Bessels Integrals 7:30. Orthonormality of Bessel's Functions 731. Modified Bessel’ s Functions 132. The Ber, Bei, Ker, Kei Functions 733. Spherical Bessel Functions 734. (a) Recurrence Relations (P) Othogonality of Spherical Besse’ Functions 735. Hermite Diffe rential Equation and Hermite Polynomials a Series of Legendre Polynomials 503 507 512 514 S17 520 522 526 536 538 539 542 544 549 554 556 557 559 563 565 566 574 S77 3578 579 581 582 383 587 387 388 589 592 593, 394 + S95 597 600 6014 (xiii) 7-49. Orthogonal Property of 4, 7-50, Recurrence Formula 751. An Important Note 7-52. Gauss Hypergeome 753. Elementary Prope ties of Hypergeometric Funct 7-54, Representation of oe Various Functions in te ic Function 755. Confluent Hyperg a. ‘Cometric Equation and Function 7-56. Properties of Confluent Hypergeometric Function 757. Representation of f Vari i f ro Stlous Functions in terms of Confluent Hypergeometric Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions > 8. FOUR: IER SERIES AND INTEGRALS 8-1\_Fotitier Series 8:2. Dirichlet’s Theorem and Dirichlet’s Conditions 8.3. Half Range Series in Interval 0 tox 84. Change of Interval from (—n, Tto(-1,) 85. Complex Form of Fourier Series 8-6. Fourier Series in the Interval (0, T) 87Change of Interval From (0, T) to (0, 21 88. Uses of Fourier Series 8:9, Physical Examples of Fourier Series 2 ¥€40. Properties of Fourier Series 8M" Gibb’s Phenomenon 81 ‘eval’ Identity for Fourier Series eon ier Integral Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 9. PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS IN PHYSICS 9-1. Introduction 92. Solution of Partial Differential Equations by the Method of ‘Separation of Variables 93. Solution of Laplace’s Equation in Cartesian coordinates 603 612 618 620 622 623 625—643 644 647 658 660 664 665 667 669 669 679 681 682 683 691—698 699 © 700 704 9-4. Solution of Laplace's equation in Two-dimensional Cylindrical coordinates (r, 8) : Circular Harmonics TL 95. Solution of Laplace's Equation in General Cylindrical coordinates (General Cylindrical Harmonics) 96. Solution of Laplace's Equation in Spherical Polar Coordinates : Spherical Harmonics 97. Diffusion Equation or Fourier Equation of Heat Flow 98. Solution of Heat Flow Equation : Method of Separation of Variables 99, Linear Flow in Semi-infinite Solid 113 ms 722 724 7289.21. Telegraph or Transmission Line Equations 766 9.22. ‘Tidal Waves in a Canal ™m 9-23. Sound Waves in a Gas 714 9.24. Inhomogeneous Wave Equations 716 9.25. Phase and Group Velocities 781 9-26. Waveguides 783 9.27. Rectangular Waveguide 789 9-28. Circular Waveguide 794 9-29. Resonant Cavities 800 Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 808—819 10. FOURIER’S AND LAPLACE’S INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS 10-1, Introduction (xiv) 9410, Variable Linear Flow in an Infinite Bar ng 9:11, Two-Dimensional Heat Flow Ht 9:12, Three-Dimensional Heat Flow “ 735 9.13, Heat Flow in Circular Plate (Use of cylindrical coordinates) 735 9:14, The Equation of Motion for the Vibrating String 740 9.15, D’ Alembert’s Solution ; ; 742 9:16. Fourier Series Solution (‘The Method of Separation of Variables) 743 917. Oscillations of Hanging Chain 154 9-18, Vibrations of a Rectangular Membrane 151 9-19. Normal modes in Three Dimensions 761 9-20. The Vibrations of Circular Membrane 163 a 820 = 102. Fourier’s Transform 820 103. Properties of Fourier's Transform 822 10-4, Fourier Transform of a Derivative 827 105. Fourier sine and cosine Transforms of Derivatives 828 106. Fourier Transform of Functions of two or three variables 833 fi 10-7. Finite Fourier Transforms 835 : ) 10-8. Simple Applications of Fourier Transforms 838 y 10-9. Laplace Transform 843 4 10-10. Properties of Laplace Transforms 844 10-11, Laplace Transform of the Derivative of a Function 851 2 10:12. Laplace Transform of Integral 853 a 10-13. Laplace Transform of Periodic Functions 857 a 10-14. Laplace Transform of Some Special Functions 860 i 10-15. Inverse Laplace Transform : Fourier Mellin Theorem 865 : 10-16.. Evaluation of Inverse Lapice ‘Transform by Bromwich Integral 867 i “10-17. Properties of Inverse Laplace Transform 868 10418, Convolution or Faltung ‘Theorem aeGo) ‘oon mre oe Laplace Transforms by Convolution ‘Thedem! 873 1021. Evaloaion oft Tactions for Evaluation of Inverse Laplace Transforms 875 2 : place Transform by using Differential Equations 880 10-22. Applications of Laplace Transform 881 Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 891901 11. DIRAC DELTA FUNCTION AND GREEN'S FUNCTION 11-1. Dirac-Delta Function 902 11-2. Properties of Delta Function 905 11.3. Fourier Transform (F.T) of Delta Function 907 11-4. Laplace Transform of Delta Function 908 115. Derivative of Delta Function 908 11-6. Completeness condition in terms of Dirac Delta Function 908 11-7, Three Dimensional delta-function 909 , 118. Green's Function : An Introduction sete Gd 11-9. Green's Function for one-dimensional case ype ¥: on 11-10. General Proof of Symmetry Property of Green's Function 913 1L-11. Eigen Function 918 11-12. Green's Function for Poisson's Equation and Solution of Poisson's Equation 921 11-13, Green's Function for Three Dimensional Helmholtz Equation 923 11-14. Green's Function for Quantum Mechanical Scattering Problem 924 Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 927-931 12. PROBABILITY, STATISTICS AND THEORY OF ERRORS 12:1. Introduction 932 122. Probability : Mathematical Definition or Priori Probability 932 12-3, Sample Space 933 12-4, Mutually exclusive Events 933 12-5, The Theorem of Total Probability 934 12-6. Compound Events and Theorem of Compound Probability 936 12-7, Binomial Theorem of Probability 939 12:8, Multinomial Theorem of Probability 941 12-9. Laplace-de-Moivre Limit Theorem 942 1210, Measures of Central Tendency, Averages 944 12-11. Measures of Dispersion (or Variation) _ 947 12:12. Karl Pearson's Coefficient of Correlation 954 12:13, Standard Deviation as the Sum of Distribution 954 12414. Moments Ge 12:15. Mathematical Expectation. (Expected value) 958 12:16. Moments in terms of Expected Values. 958 12-17. Expectation of Sum of Stochastic Variates 2(avi), 12:18. Expectation of a Product of Independent Stochastic Variates 962 12:19. Theoretical Distributions 963 12.20. Binomial Distribution 964 12-21, Poisson’s Distribution 968 12.22, Normal Distribution 973 12:23, Other Discrete Distributions. . 980 12:24. Cauchy Continuous Distribution 981 12:25. Theory of Errors 982 12:26. Line of Regression 990 Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 991997 13, GROUP THEORY 134. Concept of a Group 998 13-2. Abelian Group 999 3 133. The Generators of Finite Group 999 a 134, The Cyclic Group 1000 s 13-5. The Group Multiplication Table 1000 = 136. Rearrangement Theorem 1002 = 13-7. Subgroups 1002 = 138. Cosets 1006 = 13-9. Conjugate Elements and Classes 1007 13-10. The Product of Classes 1009 13-11. Complexes 1009 13:12. Conjugate Sub-groups, Normal Sub-groups and Factor Groups : Conjugate Sub- groups 1010 13-13, Isomorphism and Homomorphism 1013 13-14; Permutation Groups 1015 13-15. Cayley's Theorem 1016 13:16. The Group of Symmetry of an Equilateral Triangle 1017 y 13-17, Group of Symmetry of a Square 1018 y 13-18. Representation of Groups 1020 i 13-19. Reducible and Irreducible Representations 1021 13-20, Some Important Theorems on Representations . 1022 a 13-21. The orthogonality Theorem 1025 g 13-22, The Character of a Representation 1027 : 13-23. Continuous and Lie Groups 1030 F |, 1324. Symmetry Group of Schrédinger Equation 1031 i 13-25, The Unitary Group igs f ‘13-26. Point Groups : 1034 Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 1037—1044[ 140, 141, 142, 143, 14-4, 14.5, 146, 14-7, 14:8. 149, 14-10. 15-0. 15-1. 15-2. 15:3. 15-5, 15-6. 15-7. Gai) 14, NUMERICAL ANALYSIS Introduction Finite Differences Interpolation and Extrapolation Central Difference and Averaging Operators Numerical Differentiation Numerical Integration Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order Approximate Solution Of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations The Method of Least Squares Numerical Solution of Pattial Differential Equations Gauss Elimination Method for Solving a System of Linear Equations Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 15. CLASSICAL MECHANICS Introduction Review of Mechanics for a System of Particles Basic Concepts (@) Constraints (6) Generalised Co-ordinates () Transformation equations (@ Configuration Space (e) Generalised Notations (O Principle of Virtual Work (2) D’ Alembert’s Principle ‘The Lagrangian Formulation (a) Lagrange's Equations from D’ Alembert’s Principle (b) Lagrange’s equations for systems containing dissipative forces (c) Applications of Lagrange’s Equations (@) Lagrangian Formulation of Conservation Theorems - The Hamiltonian Formulation (@) Phase space. (6) The Hamiltonian Function H (0) Hamilton’s Equations (d) Physical Significance of the Hamiltonian Function (e) Cyclic Co-ordinates and Routh's Procedure () Applications of Hamiltonian Equations Conservation Theorems and Symmetry Properties 1045 1045 1050 1059 1061 1063 1071 1080 1085 1088 1092 1095—1099 1100 1100 j 1101 1101 1102 1103 1104 1104 1106— 1107 1108 1108 1 112 1129 1134 1134 1134 1136 1136 1137 1139 1142 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian of a Charged Particle in an Electromagnetic Field 1144 Variational Principles 1148is. | (xviii) @ Derivation of ules Lagrange differential equation for onie dependent and one @ a vad 1148 i ident Variable z (b) Beas omic tigi differential equation for several dependent variables : . Hig Hamilton's Principle. ba at ri : 6 Derivation of Lagrange’s Equation from Hamilton’s Principle, 1g (€) Modified Hamilton's principle. ; fe (Derivation of Hamilton's Equations from Modified Hamilton's Principle (ie, Variational Principle) (g) Principle of Least Action Leah, () Principle of least action in terms of arc length of the Panicle trajectory (@ Jacobi’s form of the principle of least action Gj) Deduction of Lagrange's equation for non-conservative systems from the j extended Hamilton's principle. 1171 (k) Deduction of Lagrange’s equation for non-holonomic systems (Method of Lagrangian undetermined multipliers). ua 15:8. The Two-Body Central Force Problems 177 (@) Reduction of Two-Body Problem to one-body Problem, 17 (8) The Equations of Motion and First Integrals 1178 (c) The Differential Equation for the Orbit 1182 (@) The Kepler Problem : Inverse Square Law of Force 1183 « (e) The Virial Theorem 1190 (Scattering in a Central Force Field 191 > _ 15.9. Laboratory and Centre of Mass Systems 1194 15-10. Legendre Transformations 1197 15-11. Canonical Transformations 1197 15-11. (@) Canonical Transformations 1197 () Conditions for a Transformation to be Canonical 1202 15-12. Brackets 1207 (@) Poisson Brackets ~~ 1207 (b) Properties of Poisson-brackets 1207 (c) Invariance of Poisson Bracket under Canonical Transformation (C.T.) 1209 (@) Lagrange Brackets 1210 (e) Properties of Lagrange Brackets : 1210 (Relation between the Lagrange and Poisson brackets 1212 ) Invariance of Lagrange and Poisson Brackets as Condition for the Transformations to be Canonical 1212 (fh) Equation of Motion in Poisson-Bracket Form 1214 () Hemilton’s Equations of Motion in Poisson Bracket Form 1215 15-13. Hamilton-Jacobi Theory 1216 (a) Hamilton-Jacobi Equation 121615:14. 15-15. 15-16. 15.18. 15.19. 15.20. 16-1. 16-2. 163. 16-4. 165. 16-6. (xix) () Hamilton-Jacobi Equation for Hamilton's Chatacteristic Function 1217 (©) Separation of Variables . 1222 (4) Action and Angle Variable ae Small Oscillations 1231 (a) Example of the Double Pendulum as a Coupled Oscillator 1236 (6) Example of Triple Pendulum as a Degenerate System 1237 (6) Free Vibrations of a Linear Triatomic Molecule 1239 (A) General Case, ie,, System with n Degrees of Freedom 1242 The Mechanics of a Rigid Body esl (@) Displacement of a Rigid Body tay (6) Orthogonal Transformations 1249 (c) Eulerian angles , 1251 (d) Infinitesimal Rotation 1253 (e) Kinematics of a Rigid Body. i 1255 (f Moments and Products of Inertia = 1256 (g) Moving Frames of Reference 1264 (A) Euler's Equations of Motion 1266 Poinsot Method 1267 Motion of a Symmetric Top in Gravitational Field Using Lagrangian Technique 1269 Condition for the Stability of a Sleeping Top 1273 Non-linear Dynamics and Chaos 1274 (a) Introuction 1274 (6) Non-linear Motion in one Dimension : 1276 (c) Pendulum Equation and Solution 1277 (d) Phase Plane Analysis of Dynamical Systems : Autonomous Systems 1279 (e) Limit Cycles 1284 (f) Route to Chaos 1285 (g) Strange Attractors 1289 (A) Butterfly Effect 1289 (Invariant Tori 1289 (KAM Theorem 1291 Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 1292-1310 16, SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY Frames of reference BI Galilean Transformations for space and time ) 1312 Attempts to locate the Absolute Frame : The speed of light relative to earth 1314 Michelson-Morley Experiment 1314 Explanation of negative results in Michelson-Morley Experiment : Principle of Constancy of Speed of Light 1317 Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity : BIT(a) 1318 ; 1321 167. Lorentz Transformation Equations =, 1325 168. Length Contraction 1329 169. Time Dilation a 7331 16-10. Transformation and Addition of Velocities ie 16-11. Fresnel's Coefficient of Drag / iaas 16-12. Relativistic Mechanics ; 1336 16-13. Variation of Mass with Velocity 16-14, Relativistic from of Newton's Second Law 1336 1615. Equivalence of Mass and Energy 1338 16-16. Evidences in Support of Mass Energy Relation 1344 1617. Relation between Momentum and energy 1346 1618. Relativistic Doppler's Effect 1349 16:19. Phenomenon of Aberration (Relativistic) 71353 16:20. Relativistic Lagrangian and Hamiltonian 1356 1621. Minkowski's Space 1358 16:22. Four Vectors ‘ 16.23. Relativistic Formulation of Equation of Motion. Minkowski Equation of motion ee 16.24. Relativistic Classification of Particles 1625. Covariant Four-Dimensional Formulaticn of the Laws of Mechanics 1367 1626. Lorentz Transformation of Space and Time in Four-vector Form 1369 1627. Orthogonality of Lorentz transformation in Minkowski Space 1370 1628. Lorentz Transformations of Electromagnetic Potentials A and 4 1371 1629. Lorentz Condition in Covariant form 1373 ) 1630. Covariance of Maxwell Field Equations under Lorentz Transformations 1373 1631. Lorentz Transformations of Electric and magnetic Fields 1376 1632, Lorentz Force on a Charged Particle 1379 16:33. Invariants of the Electromagneti¢ Field 1380 1634. General Theory of Relativity 1381 1635. (a) Principle of General Covariance : (6) Principle of Equivalence 1383 Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 1384 13851395 17. QUANTUM MECHANICS 17-1, Dual Nature of Light and Matter 17-2. de-Broglie concept of stationary orbits 1396 17:3, Velocity of de Broglie Waves 1399 17-4. Bn between Phase Velocity and Group Velocity for a Non-relativistig Free 1405 17-5. Schrédinger Equation : Equation of Motion of Matter Waves 1409 17-6, Physical Interpretation of the Wave Function 4 : 1409 17-7, Normalised Wave Functions . lay 17-8, Orthogonality of Wave Functions lay 1413179. 17:10. IT. 17-12. 17-13. 17-14, 17-15. 17-16. 17.17. 17:18. 17.19. 17.20. 17.21, 17.22. 17:23. _ 1724, 1725. 17.26. 17.26. 17.26. 17.26. 17.26. 17.26. 17.26. 17.26. 17.26. 17.26. 17.26. 17.27. 1728. (xxi) Time-Inc i a . ns of Normalisation and Orthogonality Solution of Schrédinger tan et Stationary State Solutions Operators Associated with Different Observables Expectation Values of Dynamical Quantities Probability Current Density ; Particle Flux Ehrenfest’s Theorem A Remark About Wave Function Applications of Schrodinger's Equation (a) Free Particle (b) Particle in a box (c) Potential Step (d) Rectangular Potential Barrier (e) A particle in One-dimensional Infinitely Deep Potential Well (f) A Particle in Three-Dimensional Infinitely Deep Potential Well (g) Square Well Potential (A) One Dimensional Linear Harmonic Oscillator (@ Three Dimensional Harmonic Oscillator Schréidinger’s Equation in Spherical Polar Coordinates Rigid Rotator Hydrogen Atom Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle Form of Minimum Packet : The Gaussian Wave-Packet Spread of Minimum (or Gaussian) Wave-packet with Time. Complementarity Principle Operators and Angular Momentum (a) igen Values and Eigen Functions (6) Hamiltonian Operator (c) Hermitian Operators (d) Properties of Hermitian Operators (e) Superposition of Eigen States (f) Commutativity and Simultaneous Eigen Functions (g) Commutator Algebra 2 (h) Eigen values and Bigen functions of L? afid L, () Equation of Motion () Ehrenfest’s Theorem derived from operators Electron Spin (Pauli) Spin Matrices for Electron Exercises with Multiple Choice Questions 1415 1416 1420 1421 1421 1424 1428 1429 1432 1433 1433 1435 1438 1444 1451 1453 1455 1464 1476 1478 1480 A485 © 1495 1507 1509 151L 1511 1512 1512 1513 1514 1517 1517 1520 1529 1533 1535 1536 1539 1543—15611 Vectors (WITH APPLICATIONS) 1-1. Review of Vector Algebra Physical quantities may be divided into two categories : 1, Sealars. The physical quantities having magnitude only are called scalar quantities or scalars, The examples are mass, length, era ‘ 1, temperature, pressure, work, power, energy, volume, density, current, etc, ta u 2. Vectors. The physical quantities having both magnitude and direction are called vector quantities or vectors. Sometimes a physical quantity is referred with direction e.g. current and time; but these quantities are not vectors, because they do not obey the laws of vector addition. Therefore the complete definition of a vector quantity is as follows ; A physical quantity having magnitude and direction is said to be a vector only if it obeys the laws of vector addition. The examples of vectors are elementary area, velocity, acceleration, force, linear momentum, angular momentum, torque, electric field strength, magnetic field strength, etc. Polar and Axial Vectors ‘The vectors associated with a linear directional affect are called polar vectors, The examples of polar vectors are force, acceleration, linear velocity, linear momentum, etc. The vectors associated with rotation about an axis are called axial vectors. The examples of axial vectors are torque, angular velocity ilar momentum, etc. Representation. A vector is represented by a “directed line segment” having direction and + = magnitude both, Accordingly, a vector A can be represented by an arrow OP of finite length directed from initial point O to terminal point P, the length of arrow represents the magnitude es ¥ € © ft OF > - ‘A and the arrowhead denotes the direction of vector A. In printed matter a vector quantity is represented by the clarendon letter A. The magnitude or modulus of vector A is represented by | ‘ Alor simply A. The unit vector along vector A is represented by A. The formulation of a law of Physics in terms of vector is independent of the choice of axes of reference. Ex. 1. Which of the following are the polar vectors and which are\axial vectors ? Area, velocity, gravitational field intensiy, electric field, B Ex B and torque ? x F. (Delhi 2007, 2006) Solution. Axial Vectors; Torque (7x h Polar Vectors; Area, velocity, gravitational field intensity, electric field and Ex Byvector along directions of wave propagation).9 Mathematical Physing 11@) Addition of Vectors a ne manner in which the vector quantities are added is expressed by the triang 1 of Paralletogram law of vector addition. wit nin Het there be two given vectors a and b. To add vector b to vector shen pn | Of bis placed atthe terminal point of vector a, then an arrow drawn from 0 te nia of ato the terminal point of b represents the vector sum (¢) of two given : Cy dha cy vr OB=OA+ AB ore=a+b (Fig, 1:2). Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3 ‘The sum is independent of the choice f position of O, This law of vector addition is called the triangular law of vector addition, Now the parallelogram is completed as shown in Fig. 1-3. Then the parallelogram law of vector addition may be stated as « If the two adjacent sides of a Parallelogram represent the two given vectors a and b in Magnitude and direction, then the diagonal of the parallelogram will Tepresent the vector sum (©) of the two given vectors a and b. The Vector addition obeys the following Properties : (The vector addition is commutative, i, (i) The vector addition is associative, &, a+b=bea, he, \ D+ DFes@+b)+enas(btcla(a+o4b, 1-16) Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar ‘The product of a scalar s and vector a is a vector tl Reak whosé modulus is | 51 a and whose direction is same as OT eee that of a. Ifa and b are vectors and s and ¢ are scalars, Fig. 1-4 then @ saz=as. (i) s(ta) = (sna. Gi) (s+ Na=sa tia. (i) s(a+b)=sa4sb, () Ifa and b are two non-zero collinear vectors, then there exists a non- zero scalar s such that a=sb conversely a relation of this type implies that a and b are collinear. , 1-1(c) Orthogonal Resolution of Vectors irecti ines. Let OX, OY, OZ aE aeotplain lines, each FetaVectors\(With Applications) 3 being perpendicular to the plane containing the other two. The system of axes is chosen, so as to form atight-handed Cartesian coordinate system such that if OX is turned towards OY about 2, through a small angle, the right handed screw would advance along positive direction of OZ. Let OA represent the given vector a such that the lengths of projections of a along X, Y and Z axes be nj,u, and a,, respectively represented in Fig, 1-4 by OA,, OA, and OA,, To resolve vector a along X, ¥, Z axes the initial point may be taken at any point in space. Here we have taken the initial point of a at origin of coordinate system merely for convenience, Itis customary to take i, j,k as unit vectors along X, ¥ and Z axes, respectively, so that a ae where OA,, OA, and OA,are collinear with X, Y and Z axes, respectively. ae Now, OA=0A,+A,A > 32 4 = 0A, +(A.E+EA) > 3 3 32> 3 3 3 = OA, + OA, + OA, (since A,E = OA,, EA=0A,) a=aitajtak This equation represents vector a in terms of rectangular components. By geometry the magnitude of a may be expressed as > a=lal=|OAl=V((OA,)?+ (OA,) +(OA,)7) ie, a=V(a2+a,;+a,) --Q) Now unit vector along a may be expressed as a_a& a=5s" aoa a 4, 14214 i+ 254k -.G) a Obviously “+ & are cosines: of angles which vector a makes with X, ¥ and Z axes ee sis 4 4 So ‘ respectively. That is why “f= cos a, “= cos B and “* = cos y are called direction cosines of vector a relative to X, Y and Z axes respectively. Substituting these values in (3), we get G= cos wi + cos Bj + cos yk. wl) Taking modulus of (4) on either side, we get 1a1= V(cos? o + cos? B + cos? y) ie, cos? @ + cos? B + cos? y= 1 (5) 1-1(d) Rotation of Coordinates : Definition of Vector in terms of Transformation Equations. The concept of a vector is independent of the coordinate system. The position Vector F is taken as a prototype. The position vector is taken as geometrical object independent of the coordinate system, We consider the position vector r in two different systems S and S’, the system S’ rotates relative to system S through an angle 9. For simplicity we consider the two dimensional case. Let (4, y) be coordinates of a point relative to origin of system $ and (x’, y’) the coordinates in system 5’ relative to same origin. The position vector r is fixed in two systems.Fo | rn Mathematical Physics | The coordinates of P in system S” may be expressed in terms of coordinates of system $ as follows : x's xcos$+ysing Al) y’ =x sing +ycoso | ‘ { | i Fig. 1-5 3 ' 3 3 If we assume OP as a vector A, then x and y coordinates in equation (1) may be replaced > 3 by the components of vector A along X and Y axes respectively, If (A, A,) are the components : of vector A along X and Y axes respectively, then the corresponding transformed components 2 (A? Ay’) in system S” may be expressed as 3 i ‘ s Ag = A, cos 9+ Ay sing 2) 5 Ay’ =A, sin @ + Ay cos § If the components Ay, Ay transform according to equation (2) in two systems, then they form the components of a vector A; but if they do not transform according to equation (2), they can not be said to be components of vector A. (® For example we consider a pair of quantities (-y, x); then Ay=-y and Ay transformation properties (2) of a vector, we have Ay =~y cos 6 +xsin > i] and Ay =ysing +x cos > By equation (1) Aj =-y' and Ay so by that is the defining equation of two dimensional vector is satisfied; so the pair (-y, x) represent the components of a vector. oraenencitg (ii) If we consider a pair of quantities (x, -y), then ‘Ag =, Ay=~J; So equation (2) becomes Af =x! =xc0s ¢-ysing Ay’ = -y" = xin 6 -y\cos @ = x’ =x cos $-y sing yoratioat! “8 ‘These equations are not same as equations (1), so (x, -y) can not be the components of a vector.Vectors, (With Applications) s To generalise this idea to higher dimensions, we use the notations x > x, y > x2, 411 = COs >, ay = sind ay sin 6, ay) = cos 6 so equations (1) become 4) Sat, Far, Xa! = ayy + angry where coefficients aj represent the direction cosine, ie., cosine of angle between x/ and whe, cos (x/,x)) Inparticular ay) = cos (x4’, x») = cos B-6 ) =sing | = C08 (x9', x) = cos (B+ °) =-sing Using summation symbol, in two dimensions we have 2 xi =D; xj, i =1, 2 (two equations) Jal Generalising for N-dimensions for vector A’ N Aj +2, ,.. N (N-equations) where ais cosine of angle between x; and 243 We may write wot Oe © Ox; Ox? 1-1(e) Product of Two Vectors As a vector quantity involves magnitude and direction both, therefore, it is difficult to assign a definite meaning to the product of two vectors, whether the product is a scalar or a vector quantity. Accordingly, there are two types of products of two vectors : 1, The scalar product of two vectors a and b is denoted by avb and is defined as a scalar quantity which is equal to the product of the magnitudes of two given vectors and the cosine of angle between their directions, ie., arb =ab cos @ The scalar product is also called dat product. Characteristics of scalar product of two vectors : (@ artb=abcos0 bea = ba cos (-0) = ab cos 0 Fig. 1-6 Thus, = a*b=bra ie, the scalar product of two vectors is commutative. (ii) If a*b = 0, then either of the two vectors is a null vector or the vectors are mutually perpendicular, ie., either a=0 or b= 0 or 0= z For nvo mutually perpendicular vectors avb = ab cos © = 0; therefore if i, j, k are unit 2 ‘vectors along three mutually perpendicular axes, then ick = keiSS Mathematical Piya: Obviously two given vectors are orthogonal if and only if = ab=0 ii) The scalar product of two equal vectors is given by ava = aacos 0=a* " ice, the square of any vector is equal to the square of its modulus, thus, if i, j,k are unit vectors isi=jej=kek=1 (i) Scalar product of two vectors obeys associative law, i.e, (ma) - (nb) = mn arb = naemb (¥) Scalar product obeys distributive law of multiplication, i. . ac(b +¢) = arb + arc (vi) Scalar product in terms of components. If (dy, yy 4_) and (b,y by, b) are components of a and b along (X, ¥, Z) axes respectively, then a=aita,j+ak and b=b,i+b,j + bk so that arb = aby + dyby + ab, 2. Vector Product of two Vectors a and b is represented by aX b and is defined as a vector whose modulus is equal to the product of magnitudes of given vectors and the sine of angle between their directions and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane containing a and + ie. axb=absinoat where @ is the angle between a and b and nis a unit vector along a X-b. eee sabsinon ° e 0) Fig. 1-7 1 of fis determined by right-hand screw rule, shown in Fig. 1-6 (6) and ‘The correct directio 1-7(0)- . According to right tana se to that of b through small angle, direction of f (or ax b) (Fig. 17). ‘This law may be stated in a different way as = the fingers of the right hand are turned from the direction of a to that of b through a If Je, the thumb points along the correct direction of (or ax b) (Fig, 1-7 (c)]. The ginal oruct is also called cross-product. vec .w rule, if a right handed screw is rotated from the direction of a then the direction, in which the screw advances, is the correct iVectors (With Applications) 2 Characteristics of Vector Product of Two Vectors.» ») (i) Commutative law fails axb (ie, axbd#D xa) ene 8. From definition aXD=ab sin 8 A) [Fig. 8 (a) f VAIN bx a=ba sin 2n~0) = ab si ig. 1 ee in (~f) (Fig. 1.8 (b)] or axb¥bxa Thus, Vector product of two vectors does not obey a commutative, law, (ii) Condition for two collinear vectors, Two vectors are collinear if 6 = 0 or x, ie, sin 8 = 0. Thus, for. @ b two colllinear vectors a and b ‘ 8 Bee axb=absinO@n=0 (since sin @=0) Thus two vectors are collinear (parallel or antiparallel) (a) (0) ifand only if Fig. 1-8 axb=0 7 (iif) Vector product of two equal vectors, Ifa = b, 6 = 0, so that the vector product of two equal vectors is given by axa=aasinOf=0 ie, the vector. product of two equal vectors is always zero. In particular if i, j, k are unit vectors, then ixisjxjekxk=0. (iv) Vector product of two perpendicular vectors, If a and’b are perpendicular vectors ’ axb=absing t=abh where fis a unit vector along the direction such that a, b and f form a right handed system. In particular if i, j, k are unit vectors along the principal axes X, Y, Z respectively, then ixj=k=-jxi jxk=i=-kxj kx k (v) Associative law. If m is scalar and a, b are vectors,then (ma) x b =a x (mb) = m(a x b) = mab sin OA i.e., vector product of two vectors obeys associative law. (vi) Distributive law. Vector product obeys distributive law of multiplication, ie, ax(b+e)=axb+axc (vii) Vector product in terms of components (axb) = (ia, + jay +ka,) x (iby + jby + kb) = dyby kab, j~ayby k + ayb, i + a:b, j-ayby i Achy) i + (shy a:b.) § + (Qyby— aby) ij ok =|4 gy & by by byMathematical Physics + vipaten (iit) Determination of sin @ from vector product. We have a b = ab sin 8, 5 that lax b |= ab sin @ . lax sin 6 = tect! (éx) Vector Product in Terms of Scalar Product of Two Vectors : We have (ax by? = (ab sing A)? = ab? sin? @ = ab? (1 — cos? @) = a?b?— (ab cos 6)? = a7b?~ (a, by? 1-1) Some Physical Applications of the Product of two Vectors 1. Work done by a force. This is an example of scalar product of two vectors. A force acting on a particle does work when the particle is displaced in a direction which is not Perpendicular to the force. The work done is a scalar quantity equal to the force multiplied by the resolved part of the displacement in the direction of the force. Thus if F andr are the vectors Tepresenting the force and the displacement Tespectively, inclined at an angle @ (Fig. 1.8), then the work done by the force F is W = Force x (resolved part of r along F) =Froos@=F.r Al) If the particle is acted on by several forces F), F>, the particle the separate forces do quantities of work F, done is 0 <—res8—> Fig. 1.9 «+. F,j then during a displacement r of ot) Fy ty ..F,.1: 80 the total work where F is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the particle. Therefore the total work done by the forces is the same as if the system of f forces were replaced by its resultant F, 2. Activity of a force : In accordance with the definition of work, the work done bya force F acting on a particle, during a small displacement &r, is measured by F. By. If iis displacement takes place during a time interval 8, then the average rate of' working during the interval is re. or Now proceeding to the limit 81> 0, the instantaneous rate of working or the activity of the force is given by dr [Link].y =) where v is the velocity vector of the particle at this instant, The work done during a short interval 8 is F. d vr. Therefore the total work done by the force from the instant t; to the instant t is given by we [reve 0) B‘Vectors (With Applications) 3)\Force'on a char, moving with velocity v in charge is given by ged particle in a uniform magnetic field’: Ifva'charge q is @ magnetic field of Induction B, then the force experienced by the F=q (vxB) «i(4) This equation holds if all the uantities in th stem of units. In MAK.S-4ystem force F is in newton foe afore in sare . ae rewton, charge q is in coulomb, velocity v is in metre/second and magnetic field induction B is in weber/metre?, The force acting on a moving charge in a magnetic field represented by equation (4) is generally called the Lorentz (magnetic) force. 4. Moment of a force about a point (or Torqtt about a point) : Let O be any arbitrary ae and Pine position vector relative to O of any point P on the line of action of force F (Fig. 1,10), Then the moment of the force about point O is defined as a vector quantity whose modulus is equal to the product of the magnitude of the force and the length of the perpendicular from 0 to the line of action of the force and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane containing r and F. This moment of the force F about the point O is expressed as 171 =F(ON)=Frsind > . or = t = rFsinOn XE A . oa . a whe where fis unit vector along 7. The direction of # is such that r, F and ft form a right handed system. Fig. 1.10 ie! Po arxP 2) If there are several forces F), F>, F) ... acting through the point P, they have a resultant F =F; The moment of this resultant force about 0 is Tarxk =rx (Ppt hy +Fy+ ErxFytrxyt.. ‘which is equal to the vector sum of the moment of the separate forces. Thus if the system of forces through P is replaced by its resultant, the moment about any point remains unchanged. §. Angular Momentum. Let O be any arbitrary point and r the position vector of the moving particle relative to fixed point O. If m is the mass of the particle and y its linear velocity, then linear momentum of the particle, p = mv. Angular momentum of the particle about O is the moment of linear momentum about’ 0. Thus the angular momentum of the particle about O is a vector quantity whose modulus is equal to the product of magnitude of linear momentum vector and its perpendicular distance from the point O and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane containing r and P. Therefore the angular momentum (J) of the particle about point O is expressed as 1J| =p (ON)=prsin@ =. J =:psinon Fig. 1.11SHES PONTO 10 Mathematica, Phytig A , Whete fis unit vector along J. The direction of ft is such that r, p and 2 form aright handeg System ie. =rxp 6. Angular velocity of a rigid body about of fixed axis, Consider a rigid body otating about a fixed axis ON at the rate of « tadians/second, The Angular velocity of the body is specified by a vector @ whose direction is Parallel to the axis and in the Positive Sense relative to the rotation, When a Tigid body rotates, all any point on the axis and P @ point fixed on F the position vector of P relative to Perpendicular drawn from P on the axis of rotation, Then the particle at P is moving in a circular path, with centre N and radius PN = rsin 8 where 0 is angle between ae > the directions of r and @. Its velocity is therefore Perpendicular to the plane OPN (ie, the plane of @ and r) and has magnitude v — oO © -rsin 8. Such a velocity of particle P is Paris represented by 3 1) v=Oxr Cor. Taking vector product of both sides with r, we get rXv =rx@xry* 3 =r.) -(@.8)r >: > If r and @ are perpendicular to each other, then r.@ = 0, so that 2 rxv=ro or @ =tXY. <8) 1:1(g) Products of Three Vectors The vector product of two vectors b and ¢ is a vector quantity, so be multiplied scalarly or vectorially with a third vector a to give tw ar(b x €) and ax (b x c). The former being a scalar quantity is called and the latter being a vector quantity is called the vector triple product. (1) Scalar triple product. The scalar triple product of three vectors is the scalar product of any vector with the vector product of remaining two vectors. For example, a*(b x e) and (a b)re are scalar triple products of vectors a, b, c, The Scalar triple product is usually denoted by [a bc]. - this product (b x ¢) may triple products namely the scalar triple product Let a=aita,jta,k b=byitb.j+bek * Refer section 1.1 (g) (ie. vector triple product)yeetors (With Applications) wehave(bxe)=]i jy © ye byes) i+ (bsog— Dyed) 5+ (bie = bye) Ie pa(bXe) = (ita, j+ a,b)» [B, 564 ~ Pues) i+ bye bye) § + (bu be.) k = Abe) abe bee ie beds + ay ie, ax(b Xe) = [abe] = Pee Deb) + ay (bey ~ bye,) & & a, by by b, Ge & We know that if any two rows of determinant hack are interchanged, ‘a minus sign appears, labe]=-| bby by % 4 a, | =-b(axe)=-{bac] Ch gy ntigy be by by Stl GG | =b(exa)= [bea] Thus we have [abe] = [bea] = [cab], ic., In scalar triple product the positions of dot and cross may be interchanged without changing the value of product, provided the cyclic order is maintained. Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Triple Product. The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b, ¢ represents the volume of the parallelopiped whose concurrent edges are represented by the vectors a, b,c. Consider a parallelopiped whose concurrent edges OA, OB, OC are represented by vectors a, b,c respectively i.e., > 38 > OA=a,OB=b,OC=c’ we know b x ¢ is a vector having direction perpendicular to the plane containing b and e and having modulus equal to the area of the parallelogram having adjacent sides represented by b and c. Suppose n=bxe. As the face OBDC is a parallelogram having adjacent sidés OB and OC Tepresented by vectors b and ¢ ; therefore n = b xc is a vector whose modulus is equal to the area of the base OBDC and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane OBDC. Now volume of parallelopiped, V Fig, 1.13 = (Area of the base OBDC) x (height h) b xc! (OA cos 8)=In||al cos @ i Sa.n=a.(bxe) 2)Mathematj 1 ey vt Phi | R i.e. if a,b, ¢ form a right gh @ is acute ue ¢ form a left handed sy, , hande se (ie. if la is positive if mt The scalar triple product is positiv em of ive if @ is obtus ts System of vectors) and negative if Vectors). . the face OABC, then sone * the . If we consider the base of pualelonites ee the base of the parallelopiped as the facg | arallelopiped = b. (c x a), Again if we cee xb). Thus E Vile kent of the same parallelopiped = ¢ « (@ (ax), £V=a.(bxo=b.(exa)=e- right handed and negative i the The volume is positive if the system of vectors a, b, ¢ is system is left handed. Characteristics of sealar triple product (® Distributive law holds for scalar triple product, ¢.g., a a,b +d, c+ e] = [abe] + [abe] + [ade] + [ade] the cyclic order of factors must be retained. ir scalar i) Condition for coplanar veetors. If three vectors a, b, ¢ are coplanar, th triple product is zero, sis nce then b x c is perpendicular to a and their scalar product ab fy = [abe] = 0. Thus the vanishing of [abe] is the condition that the vectors a, b, ¢ should be coplanar. If twa of the vectors are Parallel, this condition is satisfied. In particular if two of the Vectors are equal, the scalar triple product is Zer0, ie., [aab] = [abb] = [ebe] = 0. (ii) For unit vectors i,j,k, the scalar triple product is unity i. fijkl=(jkij= and Gkil=(kjqaq | (2) Vector Triple Product } of any vector with the vector vector triple product of three v. 't. The vector triple Product of three vectors is a vector Product Product of Temaining two vectors, For example a x (bX ¢) is ectors a, b, ¢ and is expressed as aX (bX ©) = (are) = b — (arb) c. P=ax(bxe) wali) of two vectors b x e is'a vector perpendicular to the Plane containing b and & Also p=ax (bx ¢) is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing a an id (bx e) ie, P lies in the plane of b and ¢ therefore is expressible in terms of band c in the form Proof. Let P=A b+i,ec wii) | 4, and 2, being scalars. Multiplying both sides scalarly by a, we get 3p =); (arb) +24 (are) But arp =0 (since p=ax (bx ¢) ig endi $0 Ay (ab) + da (are) =0 gee A‘ 4, or - ab = (say) «-liil)_ | This gives dy = 2. (ase) ahd dy =-2 (ab) Substituting these values of Ay and ain (if), we get P=A[(are) b ~ (ab) ¢] Itis easy to show that hig independent i To find the value of A, let us consider a mane aoe and directions of vectors a, bye. » Consic ‘Ta tight handed coordinateVectors (With Applications) 13 system such that X-axis is along b, Y-axis is normal to b but in the plane of b and ¢, then Zeaxis will be along. (b x e) [Fig, 1-14}, then a=aitajrak . b=bi Cac tey,j so that ; (bX €) = (i) (cy i +045) = be,k, therefore : p=ax (bx e) ven) = (@yi+ a5 + 0,8) x be, k bey —a,bey j «A ‘ Also, arc ip Cy ay cy (are) b = (ac, + a\c,) (bi) = acbit acybi wb =(a,i+a,j+a,k)+(bi)=a,b oD) (2b) © = (ab) (651+ 6)3) = ahegi—aybe,j ++(vif) using (v), (v 2) and (v i), equation (iv) yields abe, i-a,be, Merb i+ aye,bi) ~ (a,b ci +a,b cy i)) = Mabeyi-a,bo, j abe, i-a,be, j % ( "ape ieee iT Substituting this value of 4 in (iv), we get P=aX (bX c) = (arc) b — (ab) c “Qi, Characteristics of vector triple product (i Vector triple product is not commutative : ax(b Xe) 4(bxe)xa Since ax(bxc)=-(bxe)xa (ii) Vector triple product is not associative, i.e, ax(b Xe) #(axb)xe Since ax (bX ¢) = (are) b ~ (ash) and (axb) xe=-cx (ax b) = -{(e*b) a - (cea) bj = (arc) b-(bee) a Tt follows that the product a x (b x c) represents a vector coplanar with b and ¢, while the Product (ax b) x ¢ represents a vector lying in the plane of a and b, Hence the two products do not represent the same vector quantity. 1-1(h) Product of Four Vectors Leta, b, ¢, d be four vectors. ‘ () Scalar product of four vectors. The scalar Product of four vectors a, b, ¢, d is defined as (a x b)e(c x A) = (nec) (hed) _ (med) (2...‘To prove this let aX p=n pene ice in scalar triple in eeres iS interchanged) 2 ((axb)xe}d {ex (ax b)}-d sb) a — (cra) b} ed arc ) (bed) - (ard) (bre) vector prot four vectors. The (ex d). As (ax b) x (¢ (ii) Vector product of roduct of four vectors i vector product of (a x b) ane (axb) and (cx 4), therefore, vector pI also with e, d and is defined as (axb)x (ex d) = [acd] b - [bed] 2 (ax b) x (x d) = [abd] e - [abe] d To prove these relationships, lIetcxd=m thea (axb) <(exd) =(axb)xm = (a*m) b -(bem) a = (ar(exd)} b— (be(ex d)} a = [aed] b - [bed] a % Again, let axb =n, then (axb)x (xd) =nx (cx d) = (ned) ¢ ~(nve) d = ((axb)*d) e— (ax b)c)) d =[abd)e-[abe]d Linear relationship between four vectors From results (i) and (ii), we have {aed] b — (bed) a = [abd] c-[abe} d or {abe} d=~ [acd] b + [bed] a + [abd] ¢ But [ned] =~ (dea Therefore [abe] d = fhed] a + {dea} b + [abd] ¢ or qe ldbel a+ [dea] b + [dab] ¢ ; [abe] Alternatively this relation may be obtained as follows : Ifa, b, c are non-coplanar ‘vectors, then any vector d m: - d=aa+Bb +70, Multiplying scalarly by b xe, we get [dbc] = ay be expressed as & [abe] & q =[abe] ~ abe} Similarly B = fia nay) [abc] dbe = a =lbela+ (deal + faab) ¢ [abe] ab] e (ex d)=mr(e% d) product, positions of dot and cross way i duct of four vectors a, b, c, dis the x d) is a vector perpendicular to vectors sa vector coplanar with a, Dand i) alii) wn) a, B, y being scalarsVectors (With ‘Applications) 15 11(i) Reciprocal System of Vectors ; ; Leta, b,c be three non-coplanar vectors. If there exist three’ other vectors a’, b’, ¢’, such that y bX) exe jae - **Tabe) = Tabe) © = fabel a then a, b, cand a’, b’, e” are said to be reciprocal system of vectors. Itis so called because beb’ = cre’ = 1 a PXe, [abe _ | {abe} ~ [abe] beb’ =p, SA) _ [abe] a.” Gibe) * [abe)“? For ata’ sc! =, (2 Xb) _ [abe] _ oe = abe) = tabe] =! so that a at, bebe ae! -@) The reciprocal system of vectors also Possesses the property that the scalar product of any other pair of vectors one from each system, is Zero, i.e, ath = a’ee = b’a = b'tc =e! and arb’ = are’ = bia’ = bee’ = cra’ +p leXal a] Wena a8 lea al other results may also be proved in the same manner. ‘The symmetry of the above relations Suggests that if a’, b’, c’ is the:reciprocal system to abe, then abe is the reciprocal system to a’, b’,c’, This may be proved as follows : bxe eo ee {since (@ x.a) x (ax b) = [eab] a} b= 0, +A) ob’ = 0 = [abe] +5) Consequently ava [abe}? ~ [abe] a’*(b’x cc’) = ‘be = ie. Wel =i (6) ‘Therefore equation (5) gives a= (b’x e’) [abe] = ape {using (6)] a “xa! a’xb’ Similarly b “eye oe In particular if i, j, k are unit vectors along principal axes and i’, j’, k’ are their reciprocals, then ‘This is called self-reciprocal system.16 1-1(/) Differentiation of Vectors 3 ; 4 _. Ifa vector r varies corresponding to the variation 2 et y interval, then r is said to be a vector function of scalar vari scalar then hee TSE) Let Sr be the increase in r corresponding to the increase 6r in the st 5 rivative op | Vector function r(¢) with respect to scalar tis defined as | Lim 2 = Lim ses =r | a 408 G0 | Provided the limit exists, \ When this limit exists, the function r is said to be differentiable and the process of i determining the derivative of the function is called differentiation. ‘ As the vectorial properties of a vector are not changed by its division with a scalar, thus, the derivative of a vector with respect to a scalar is itself a vector. If r, f, T3 are vector functions of scalar variable t and c is a constant vector, then it is easy to see that o feo ny di @) A eitm)= 2 +B | Gi) F=E, s being a scalar function of | (oy 48, * (v) Ifr=ir + jy + kz is the position vector, then Hide Wy ey, | wa S yer) = Bh ry + Be ey. If ry =1)=r (say), then d dt Be yg BE Stor) = 2re say dr dra (vii) axis a Xr try x In the differentiation of vector product, the order of vectors must be preserved. dry an dr dr; (un fies d= (ey 4+ (Sens) oni (BB) ‘dr; dr; dr: =[Grs]+[n Gos]+ [nS] dr dt (x) fin X (tp Xr) = GX a Ky) +1 x (Gix 5) rx (rx %). Partial Derivatives. If f is any vector function depending upon more than one scalar variable say (x, ), % sé. f= fay, 2) then the partial derivative of f with respect to any of the variables, taking all other variables” constant, is defined asveetors (With Applications) 7 Of yim Ele 82, y, 2) = fe yee) == Li x,y, Zt) f(x, y, Z, i ax” 5 i ‘ BP pe fC WB : Sx Lim LG. v4 by.2, =f, 21) ey i ay Bao ay ® Ea tiie 8 == L 2¥, z+ z t) - f(x, yz, f) | Cor & +) | Ho tim £02 ts 8) ti 2 are a wuld) Above equations (1), (2) (3) and (4) represent the patil derivatives off with respect to, y,& t respectively, if these limits exist. ‘The partial derivatives of higher order are expressed as Of _ 9 (at) Paar, ae a ar af (Ss ay? = ay (5) ; Saya Gy) oF ij r e a Further, if there exist continuous Partial derivatives of second order f, then ae = aa ie, order of differentiation does not matter, Moreover, the partial derivatives in ordinary calculus with the conditi involving vector product. of vectors obey the same rules as do the scalar functions jon that the order of vectors must not be changed in cases SOLVED EXAMPLES Ex. 2, Given vectors a=ai+aj+ak and D=bi +b jt bk Show that they are parallel if and only if Dy te, bby by and they are perpendicular if and only if ab, +a,b,+a,b,=0. (Kanpur 2005) Solution. (3) According to condition of collinear vectors, a and b are parallel if and only if a=)b | where 2 is any scalar, na | ke. (ai + aj + a,k) = Mb,i + b,j + BJ) ie, (a,-2b,) i+ (a, -Ab,) j + (@,- 2b) = 0. Asi, j,k are non-coplanar vectors, this equation is satisfied if and only if (a,-b,) = 0, (a ~Ab,) = 0; (a, Ab) =0 or h =i Whe e he e ‘Thus a and b are parallel if and only if & Gy cat (ii According to condition of orthogonal vectors, a and b ate perpendicular if and only if | acbeo_ jj + a,k).. (bi + b,j + bjk)= 0 a,by+ aby +a,b,=018 Mathematicn » Ex. 3. Show that the vectors a = 3i-2j +k, b= -3j + 5K and ¢ = 9} right angled triangle, Solution. Firstly we have to show that vectors a, b, ¢ form a triangle, Vectors form a triangle if tina fon, bi) (@ Any of the vectors a, b, c is the vector sum of Temaining two vectors or ‘ (ii) The vector sum of a, b, ¢ is zero, ie, a+b +c¢=0, we have a=3i-3+k 4 a=i-3j+5k c= i+j—4k Obviously a=bee ‘Thus vectors, a,b, ¢ form a triangle Further a.b=(i-2j +k). (i-3) + 5k) 2+k). Qi+j ~4k)=0 3) +5k). (i+ j-4k) =-21 | From these it follows that vectors a and e are orthogonal. So the triangle formed by a, b| and ¢ is right angled triangle, Ex. 4. Check, whether the vector 12) + 43 ~6is parallel or perpendicular to vector OF +2} 3h. (Pondicherry 1990) | Solution: Let A=120 + 4} —6f B=6i+2}-3¢ For perpendicular YectorsA. B=0 Wehave A.B =(127 +4} —6f), (62 +2} -st)= 7248418298 #0 Hence A is not perpendicular to B, For parallel vectors A x B'= 0 Tae ABO Wehave AxB= (12) 4.4) ~6L) x (67 +2} ~ 8) - 3 & = 112 4 -6 6 2 -3 =P C24 12-9 6364 36) + 24-24) =9 This shows that vectors A and B are parallel vectors. x. §. Prove that unit vector normal to the plane ofthe wo vectors 2i ‘and the sine of angle between them is 283 (Rohitthand 2005) i+ kand 31+ 4k Solution. Denoting the given vectors by a and b res ‘Pectively, we have axb =( ~J+K) x Gi+4j-1 i jk =/2 +1 1 = 31+ 57+ 11k Bo des‘Vectors (With Applications) Hence unit vector perpendicular to given vectors a and b is aah W3i+Sj4 1k -3i+ Sj + Uk axbl Vare@reane | | Vi55 — Further laxbl=absind ms 155) N+ GI)? + 1) VG? +42 +1) iss (3S) “Vevze V \156) Ex. 6, Find Hie constant p fer which A xB = Cubes =T42hpe sp} Rand c==28 43} 48 Solution Given Ax B=C Substituting given values Gaakyx dept heatewst A 4 * : J ‘ A A A or 1 0 2| =-2i+3j +k A ahh AA kha ee o 1 (0-2p)-J afk @ 0) =-2h 43h +h or -2p +3} +pk=-2i +3f +8 Comparing coefficient of ? and k, we get -2p = ~2 and p= 1. ee ne. oa BD Ex.7.A triangle has side A, B and @ such that B + =A, show that the angle (8) between A and B is given by A 1-31 + 5j + 11k | 1W= je kl 135i + 45 - kel (Pondicherry 1990) p Att BC ee SBR A OD che a A Solution. From Fig. (B +C)=A=C =(A -B) Taking scalar self product of both sides ol, iy ae (C-C) =(A-B).(A -B) > B-B-A+B-B yy > 2-24 -B +B? > 2 —2AB cos 6 + B? = 2AB cos 0 = A? +B? - > cos 9 =A*+ Bo - Ct ic 2AB This is well known low of cosine for a plane triangle. ebb20 i light the law of refraction of li ee of refractive index [y, into expressed by Ex. 8, Show th a sing through a medium of e pats medium of refractive index [his € vector equation a maxn=mbxn ha it Lito where f, & and are unit vectors along norma’ boundary, along incident ray and along refracted ray respectively. Solution. Let i and r be angles of incidence and refraction respectively. Snell's laws are : (i) Incident ray, refracted ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane, | te, Fig. 1-15 | A, @ and 6 are coplanar. +d) Oar 2) Wehaved x= 1.1 sin ié where 2 is unit vector normal to plane containing d and ft. a = sint= 28 a +3) t A Similarly sin p= 2% é +) Substitution! values of sin i and sin r from Gx ie _m bx ie = my axt=ubxh This is required expression, (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get dA > Be oP =a x Aad Beg yp show that a 3 Solution: Wehave (AXB)=@ x(AxB) ; Pondicherry 1991) (Ax B) = A aAXB)= xp tax Given a =O xB a> 7X A and B dt and B)Vectors (With Applications) 21 Ex. 10. Fi Asai te ind the value of i = ai +} +45 subtends and angle 6f 60° withdf' 3} an : (Pondicherry 2004, 1 Solution. Given A=al 49413 ee B=4i —she Vs Angle between A and B, @ = 60° AxtAl= Vat + 124 lspeV re (a? + 6) Al) Ba=IBI=V42 + 5)24 (W5paVag 1 OP + ap aa v2) Also A. B= (a? +7 +-V5h. (4) —5} 4 V5.2) =4a-5+5=4a @ Wehave A.B=AB cos @ e Substituting values from (1), (2) and (3) 4a=V(a? +6). V46 cos 60° or 4a = V46 Vat +6) xb ie. 8a=V46 (a2 + 6) ; \ Squaring 64a? = 46a? + 276 ‘ or 18a =276 > a= = a= je Bx. 11. if AsSti +r} -ek and Besint}—cost}, pnd fa xB). (Bharthiar 1985) I, Solution. We have AXB= (52741) -2 8)x (sin? — cos t}) ‘ n 4 i i k =; |.5 t =f sint —cos t 0 =-f cos tf? sin} + (52 cos t—tsin fa xB) =4.0 cost t= sint} -# cos r+ asin = (-2t cost+f sin f) i - (2tsin 1+ cos 1) j ~ (108 cos t— 522 sin t +1 €08 t+ sin t) = (@ sin 1-21 60s 1) 1 -(@ cos t+ 2t sin) } ; + (52 sin t — It cos t— sins). Ex. 12. Show that and ja? 2007, 1985) are orthogonal and find a vector.2, orthogonal to both x and y. (Bharthiar.Mathematical Phy, Solution. Given The modulus of x is 2 VQ eC) +67 The modulus of y is 2 VG) +(4) + @) i dy, th —, * ak -2h) 7 ( iP Z pea Ef) j 3 uxy (3 § 73 OO aay oO@ 2,24 9* 979 =——— =0 This implies 6 = 90°, | | This shows that the vectors x and y are orthogonal, The vector Z perpendicular to both x | and y is along xx y. We have a(h?_29 28) 20 paA-ge | vere (059-30) (EPL) 24) T i 4 i fie 1 2 2 | cjg ~2 -2|. an da. ya | 3, 3 2) rg! gd hh 2 et 2 3 3 3 Hence required vector, 2=-2} -3} +he 3 2 | 3°03 "3 i Ex. 13. Find the y, the | . arallelop; a represented by a=2i—5j, ha aye sh ralelepiped whose three coterminous eg, Solution, The volume of the Parallelopiped is eae q% a [Link]|s, 7 % | t ' i | Ex. 14, if Determine m such that ( All the three vectors are coplanar, (i) The volume of the paraltelopiped maj ip €™ be 12 Units,| Vectors (With Applications) 23 Solution. (i) The vectors A, B and € are coplanar if their scalar triple product vanishes, ie. . A.(BxC) =0 1-1-2 or a7 gt 6 sl 4 om =0 or 1,m ~ 24) + 1, (8m +6) =2 (12 +5) =0 or Sm -24 + 3m + 6-34 or 8m ~52 =0 or 8m =52 ' ma (iii) Volume of parallelopiped made by three vectors A, Band Cis A. (Bx C) Here A.(BxC) =+12 t aD or 3.5 6| =£12 -| 4 m or 8m - 52 8m =64 or 40 This gives 40 oes Sor 5 ‘Thus m= 8 units if system is right handed and m = 5 if system is left handed. Ex. 15. A= 4i-5j+3k,B=2i-10)-7k and C=Si+7j-4k deduce the values of () (AX B). Cand (ii) Ax (Bx C). (Garhwal 2005, 2001, Kanpur 2003) Solution. We have A = 4i-5j + 3k B = 2i-10j-7k C =5i+7j-4k @ (AxB).C =A.(BxC) Ay Ay Az] [5-5 3 = |B, By B,|=|2 -10,-7 Gx GCs Maras =4 (40 +49) +5 (8 +35) +3 (14 +50) = 356 + 135 + 192 = 683 cubic units (ii) Ax (BXC) =(A.C) B-(A.B)C Here (A. ©) = (4i-5j + 3k). (51+ 7j-4k) = 20-35-12 =-27 (A. B) = (4i-5j + 3k) . (24 - 10j -7k) =8+50-21=37 Ax (Bx C) =-27 (2i - 10) - 7k) -37 (Si+7)-4k) = -54i + 270j + 189k — 185i - 259j + 148k r = 2391 + 11j + 337k: :0 Ex. 16, Prove that ; ve 3 Giax@caebeexneex@nt) ah (ii) [a +b, b+ e,¢ +a] = 2 [abe]. il Proof. (i) From vector triple product, we have ax (bxe)=(a.c)b-(a.b)¢ oe bx(cxa)=(b.a)e-(b.c)a ©x(axb)=(¢.b)a-(c.a)b Adding equations (1), (2), (3), we get ax (bx) +b x(cx a) +cx(axb) =0 @ a+b, b+e,c+a)=(a+b). ((b+c)x (ce +a)} =(a+b), Ub x) + (b xa) + (exe) + (exa)) = [abe] + faba] + {acc} + (aca] + [bbe] + [bba] + [bee] + [bea] But [aba} = [nee] = [aca] = [bbe] = (bal = [bec] = 0 Therefore [a + by b+e,c+a]= [abe] + [bea] = 2 [abe] Ex. 17. Show that the Components of vector a along and perpendicular to vector b may be 1 expressed as)» and PX BBY sess csively where b Lyreb rus Fea E.e, Similarly Bx Cy SOY MC eB -(1) f / Be DR eg a I sie a AD) “OVE Bh _ ap. & a 1 By +2),27 ‘Vettors (With Appliédtions) | (Cx A).B xB) " aL we EP = =C(R-D)B ABB) ; =@.3)@ D)-(-D)@-B) +) Adding (1), (2) and (3), we get gig Bx) xB)+@ xd). xd) 4x 2)-G xD) R-CVE-D) aT) ac) =(A-C)B-D)-(-D)B- Bo th a *EOCD)-B-D)C-A) 5 +€-B)a.p)-@ D)@-B) “G-C@-8) at BNE. aa EAE D)-€ va wy Bie HC-BED)_-F DE) As dot product is commutative, all the terms in three brackets { } are zero separately; hence Pads . BBC BB eB d\n adh xD)=0, Ex. 22. Prove the relation AXIBx(CxMxEy]= (CE) (A-D) - (C+D) (A+E)} B + ((C*D) (AsB) E~ (C*E) (A*B) D} Proof. From vector triple product Cx (Dx E)= (CE) D_ (Cp) E * Bx(Cx@xB)} =Bx (CE) D~ (CD) BE) = (CE) (Bx D)~ (Cp) @xE} © LHS. =A x [Bx (Cx xk) <4 x(CE) B xD) ~(Cep) (Bx E)] = (CE) (Ax B xD) — Cap) {Ax BxE)} = (CHE) {(A*D) B~ (A+B) D) ~ (C+D) {(A*E) B_ (A*B) E} = (CE) (AD) B~ (CoB) (AB) D (CD) (A*E) B + (xp) (A°B)E = ((C#E) (AD) — (CD) (A*E)} By (CD) (AsB) EE (C*E) (AB) D) =RHS, Ex. 23. Ifg,b Cand a’, b’, e' are reciprocal s ‘ystem of vectors, then Prove (axa')4 (bx b’) 4 (exc’)=0, Proof, We have ’ abxe, yaSXa | ayy Tabey “Tabe)" © = Taba) axa’ a AREA) (ore) baby g (abe tae} A) Also MEW wPALEXS) Sib rhs ees [abe] +-Q) and met eS Alex) “ewes. b ‘ etriue bey = 8 Leap ~O)! Adding (1), (2) and @), we get : f Xa) +Oxb\ 4 eyeMathematica) Phyg ao get following Se! i 28 ctors reciprocal 10 the fo poe (Delhi [Link]. Hons, | Ba Bx. 24. Finda sf vectors rec ach +3 +29) enter : is ‘ ee then the reciprocal scl i cl y Ifa, b, cis a set of ve" " ® | Solution. es . bxe 22% ond =e] Y =labe) “fade aed Here a'=2} 43h, b'= 1-7-2 = [abc]=arbxe 2 y-1 (2-1) =4-153 no ny i 4 3 =2(-2+4) -3 (2-2-1 (2-1) 7 é 4 &| lan a8 t a 4 ¢ bxe 1 i j f L j Es * fab) 3 | & = 2 e a’ [abe] 3 oe a 3 a 1 2 =} 1e2+4-Je-y+ke-1 ee pee 1 [Po RG 41g ea ahes ay) beibq =a [2 2 =the} 3 4 =7 08 fe3j-m x & & peel fF tee 4 ak c= =312 3 =the? aaf-sh OE ae al 3 12, Gradient of a Scalar Field Hea G32) be any continuously differentiable. scalar function. The gradi 3 function is mathematically defined sg Seaent of gala =i, 98, 6 stg 158 28. 28 ah 2459 2)y Moy +kS)o=V6 Aes faa de “Fay +H 5 scaled ‘drop ‘nabla’, Physical Interpretation, In th very close together character; whereVectors (With Applications) 29 two points P and R on the level surfaces $, and S, respectively. Let r and r + dr be the iti : ~> position vectors of P and R respectively relative to any arbitrary origin, then PR = dr. If co-ordinates of P and R z+ dz) respectively, then Pee auth de =ide+jdy+kdz Q) As the values of scalar function at P (x, y, 2) and R i y+dy,z+dz) are and 6 + d6, Wenn wae amek ese 90 4, 2 el do a jeans ay ae 2) “36 Bi =(i # +150 +k 98) x Gide sia +k do = (Vo) de / wa (4) (using (1) and (2) Fig. 117 In particular if we consider that the point R ( the level surface S,. then do = 0, so that (Vd) *dr= thereby showing that the vector Vp is normal to the level surface S. If dn represents the distance along the normal from point P to the surface Sp, then dr) lies on we dh = PQ=drcos0= nedr CO} a. y where ” is a unit vector normal to the surface 5 at P. If we proceed from P to Q the value of scalar function @ increases by an amount d@ ; therefore, we may write d& = 2 in = nedr using (6) me) Comparing (4) and (7), we get a 4 grad @=Vo=5) 1. wo» (8) ‘Thus, the gradient of a scalar function 9 at any point is a vector whose magnitude is equal 10 the rate of change of scalar function along the normal to the level ‘surface and whose direction is normal to the level surface at the point. As a 7 gives greatest rate af increase of 6 with respect to space variables, therefore grad 6 may be defined as follows : ctor whose magnitude is equal to The gradient of a scalar function 4 is a ve maximum rate of change of scalar function > with respect to space variables and whose direction is along that change. If wand ware scalar differentiable functions, then it may be easily seen that ? grad (w+ v) = grad u + grad v = grad (wv) =u grad v + v grad u ~~ (10) 5 Directional Derivative: The component of V4 in the direction of a vector A is called the = A 4 4 A directional derivative of 6 in the direction of A and is given by.V @«,A= Voe a