MODULE -1

COGNITION: THINKING AND LANGUAGE

COGNITION
• Cognition refers to a range of mental processes relating to the acquisition,
storage, manipulation, and retrieval of information.

• Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining

knowledge and comprehension. These cognitive processes include thinking,
knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving. These are higher-level
functions of the brain and encompass language, imagination, perception, and
planning.
“Cognition” is a term signifying general mental operations, such as pattern
recognition, language processing, etc. “Thinking,” on the other hand, is
subsumed under “cognition,” but it is a problematic term because of the
difficulty in determining just what “thinking” is.
• Both the terms are used interchangeably. Higher order cognitive skills
include critical thinking, creative thinking, problem solving and decision
making.

Cognitive Skills are basics mental abilities we use to think, study and learn.
It includes:- Attention, working memory, processing speed, long term
memory, visual processing , auditory processing, logic and Reasoning etc.
Thinking Skills are the mental processes we use to do things like: solve
problems, make decisions, ask questions, make plans, pass judgements,
organize information and create new ideas. Often we’re not aware of our
thinking - it happens automatically - but if we take time to consider what’s
going on then we can become more efficient and more creative with our
minds.
Both (cognition, thinking) are different as well. However, inter-related.

• We learn different information with cognitive skills.

• Thinking skills to organize and use information learned.
Types of Cognitive Processes
There are many different types of cognitive processes. These include:
• Attention: Attention is a cognitive process that allows people to focus on a
specific stimulus in the environment.

• Language: Language and language development are cognitive processes

that involve the ability to understand and express thoughts through spoken
and written words. It allows us to communicate with others and plays an
important role in thought.
• Learning: Learning requires cognitive processes involved in taking in new
things, synthesizing information, and integrating it with prior knowledge.
• Memory: Memory is an important cognitive process that allows people to
encode, store, and retrieve information. It is a critical component in the
learning process and allows people to retain knowledge about the world and
their personal histories.
• Perception: Perception is a cognitive process that allows people to take in
information through their senses (sensation) and then utilize this information
to respond and interact with the world.
• Thinking: Thought is an essential part of every cognitive process. It allows
people to engage in decision-making, problem-solving, and higher reasoning.

COMPONENTS OF COGNITION/THINKING
1. Concepts
Concepts are mental categories that help individuals classify and organize
objects, events, people, or ideas based on shared characteristics. They
simplify the world by allowing us to group similar things together rather than
dealing with each object separately. Concepts are formed through experience
and learning, and they play a crucial role in thinking, reasoning, and problem-
solving.
Concepts can be natural concepts, which are formed through everyday
experiences (e.g., trees, animals), and artificial concepts, which are defined
by specific rules (e.g., geometric shapes). According to psychology, concepts
have prototypes, which are the most typical examples of a category. For
instance, a sparrow is a more typical prototype of the concept bird than a
penguin. Concepts help in efficient thinking by reducing cognitive load and
enabling quick decision-making.
2. Propositions

Propositions are mental statements that express relationships between

concepts. They represent knowledge in the form of ideas that can be judged
as true or false. Propositions form the basic units of meaning in language and
thought and are essential for reasoning and logical thinking.
For example, the statement “The cat is on the mat” is a proposition because it
shows the relationship between the concepts cat and mat. Propositions allow
individuals to store factual information and make inferences. In cognitive
psychology, knowledge in memory is often believed to be stored in
propositional form rather than as exact images or words. This helps people
understand meanings even when the wording changes.
This is a relationship between concepts.

Examples:
I am sitting on a chair
I am writing a letter
Propositions make complete sense. They make thinking simple & easier.
 [Link] (Mental Imagery)
A mental representation of a previously stored sensory experience including
visual, smell, touch, taste & smell imagery.

Images, or mental imagery, are mental representations that resemble sensory

experiences such as sight, sound, taste, or touch, even when the actual
stimulus is absent. Mental imagery allows individuals to “see” or “hear” things
in their mind, supporting memory, learning, and problem-solving.
For example, imagining a familiar place or visualizing a diagram while studying
involves mental imagery. Research shows that mental images can influence
behavior and performance, such as athletes visualizing successful
performance before competitions. Mental imagery also plays an important
role in memory, as information associated with images is often remembered
better than abstract information.

REASONING
Definitions
• “Reasoning is a stepwise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind” — Garrett.
• “Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful, controlled and selective
thinking” — Gates.
• “Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause-
and-effect relationships; it may be the prediction of an event from an
observed cause or the inference of a cause from an observed event” —
Skinner.
Reasoning: Characteristics
Reasoning is Typical Thinking:

• It thinks out a new relationship among the facts previously observed and
recalled at present.
• It is different from thinking of something, because it involves a series of
symbolic activities.
• When you reason, you call up some images, ideas or symbols, which enable
you to respond to absent stimuli.
• Thus, reasoning involves a sequence of symbolic activities directed towards
the solution of a problem, theoretical or practical.

Reasoning is Mental Exploration:

• It finds a new relationship among the data perceived or recalled.

• It is a substitute for motor exploration. Suppose, you have lost your way in a
new place. You may explore the different ways by actual movements, or you
may sit down and think.
• You may explore the novel situation mentally and try to find out a clue. By
following one clue after another you may at last find out the right way which
will lead you to your destination.

Reasoning: Types
Inductive Reasoning:

• It is a specialized thinking aimed at the discovery or construction of a

generalized principle by making use of particular cases, special examples and
identifying of elements or relations.
• For example, Mohan is mortal, Radha is mortal, Karim is mortal; therefore,
all human beings are mortal.

Deductive Reasoning:
• It is the ability to draw some logical conclusions from known statements or
evidences. Here one starts with already known or established generalized
statement or principle and applies it to specific cases.
• For example, all human beings are mortal; you are a human being, therefore,
you are mortal.

Basic Sources of Error in Reasoning

1. Mood
• Mood refers to a person’s emotional state while thinking or reasoning.
• When a person is happy or relaxed, they may think optimistically and
overlook mistakes.
• When a person is sad, angry, anxious, or stressed, their reasoning may
become biased, pessimistic, or illogical.
• Strong emotions can interfere with clear thinking and lead to wrong
conclusions.
• 👉 Thus, mood can distort judgment and affect the accuracy of
reasoning.
2. Beliefs

• Beliefs are ideas or opinions that a person accepts as true, often

without questioning.
• People tend to reason in ways that support their existing beliefs.
• Sometimes beliefs are based on tradition, culture, or personal
experience rather than facts.
• Strong beliefs can prevent a person from accepting new or
contradictory evidence.
• 👉 As a result, beliefs can limit objective thinking and lead to errors in
reasoning.
3. Confirmation Bias

• Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, and

remember information that confirms one’s existing beliefs.
• People give more importance to information that supports their views.
• They ignore or reject evidence that goes against their opinions.
• This bias prevents fair evaluation of all facts.
• 👉 Confirmation bias leads to one-sided thinking and faulty
conclusions.
4. Hindsight

• Hindsight is the tendency to believe that an event was predictable after

it has already happened.
• People say “I knew it would happen” even when they could not have
predicted it earlier.
• This creates a false sense of certainty and overconfidence in one’s
reasoning.
• It prevents learning from mistakes because outcomes seem obvious
after the fact.
• 👉 Thus, hindsight can distort memory and judgment, causing errors in
reasoning

PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving is the act of defining a problem, determining the cause of
the problem, identifying, prioritizing and selecting alternatives for a
solution, and implementing a solution.
THE FOUR BASIC STEPS OF THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS
In order to effectively manage and run a successful organization, leaders
must guide their employees and develop problem-solving techniques.
Finding a suitable solution for issues can be accomplished by following the
four-step problem-solving process and methodology outlined below.

1. Define the Problem

2. Generate Alternative Solutions
3. Evaluate and Select an Alternative
4. Implement and Follow Up on the Solution
1. Define the Problem
• Diagnose the situation so that your focus is on the problem, not just its
symptoms.
• Helpful problem-solving techniques include using flowcharts (A
flowchart is a picture of the separate steps of a process in sequential
order) to identify the expected steps of a process and cause-and-effect
diagrams to define and analyze root causes.
• The sections below help to explain key problem-solving steps.
• These steps support the involvement of interested parties, the use of
factual information, comparison of expectations to reality and a focus
on root causes of a problem. You should begin by:
• Reviewing and documenting how processes currently work (i.e., who
does what, with what information, using what tools, communicating
with what organizations and individuals, in what time frame, using what
format).
• Evaluating the possible impact of new tools and revised policies in the
development of your “what should be” model.

2. Generate Alternative Solutions

• Postpone the selection of one solution until several problem-solving

alternatives have been proposed.
• Considering multiple alternatives can significantly enhance the value of
your ideal solution.
• Once you have decided on the “what should be” model, this target
standard becomes the basis for developing a road map for investigating
alternatives.
• Brainstorming and team problem-solving techniques are both useful
tools in this stage of problem solving.
• Many alternative solutions to the problem should be generated before
final evaluation.
• A common mistake in problem solving is that alternatives are evaluated
as they are proposed, so the first acceptable solution is chosen, even if
it’s not the best fit.
• If we focus on trying to get the results we want, we miss the potential for
learning something new that will allow for real improvement in the
problem-solving process.

3. Evaluate and Select an Alternative

• Skilled problem solvers use a series of considerations when selecting

the best alternative.
• They consider the extent to which:
• A particular alternative will solve the problem without causing other
unanticipated problems.
• All the individuals involved will accept the alternative.
• Implementation of the alternative is very good.
• The alternative fits within the organizational constraints.

4. Implement and Follow Up on the Solution

• Leaders may be called upon to direct others to implement the solution,

“sell” the solution, or facilitate the implementation with the help of
others.
• Involving others in the implementation is an effective way to gain buy-in
and support and minimize resistance to subsequent changes.
• Regardless of how the solution is rolled out, feedback channels should
be built into the implementation.
• This allows for continuous monitoring and testing of actual events
against expectations.
• Problem solving, and the techniques used to gain clarity, are most
effective if the solution remains in place and is updated to respond to
future changes.
Problem Solving Barriers
Different blocks, and combinations of these result in a range of barriers to
problem solving. There is no definitive way to link blocks to barriers but some
suggestions are provided below.
[Link] Bias
This is about not following the problem solving method, and so introducing
bias. This can be the result of missing steps out, or not using them correctly.
Confirmation Bias arises when the approach taken is to confirm a
preconceived solution. Basically, you would have found the solution before
you found the problem, and perceive the problem solving method through this
lens (perspective and intellectual blocks). For example, if you feel you already
know everything about the problem, you won’t perform research, or only
research things that confirm the appropriateness of the solution you want to
use.
[Link] Set
This comes from relying too heavily on heuristics – the clichés of problem
solving, like a ‘rule of thumb’ or ‘common sense’ as a way to solve a problem,
rather than actively looking for the best or simplest solution. It is about
reusing what has been successful in the past, rather than assessing and
evaluating the problem.
The heuristic for mental set could be called ‘why reinvent the wheel’. It relies
on previous experiences to direct how a problem can be solved. This could be
an intellectual block, as the problem solver is not prepared to learn new
problem solving skills, and emotionally relies on familiarity to feel comfortable
with a solution.
[Link] Fixedness
This is about not thinking creatively. It is a narrow mind-set. Functional
Fixedness comes from people thinking that an object has only one function.
For example; a jug can only be used to pour fluids; it can’t be used as a mixing
bowl. It can be summarized as ‘You can’t do that’. Functional Fixedness
affects the time taken to make a decision. If you don’t have a mixing bowl, but
won’t use the jug, you waste time going to buy a new mixing bowl. Because it
relates to objects, often caused by an intellectual or environmental block.
[Link] Constraints
This barrier causes unwarranted boundaries to be placed on a problem. It
links to trying to solve a problem using previous experience of what has
worked in a situation and trying to force it to work in the current situation,
rather than looking for a new solution. This inhibits creativity. The barrier can
be removed by insight. Most problem solving methods focus on developing
insight into a problem – through information gathering, evaluation and
assessment.
Unnecessary Constraints could be caused by an intellectual block, or an
emotional one causing an over reliance on the known. An example would be
trying to improve a service using current procedures and processes, rather
than find a solution and design new procedures and processes.
[Link] Information
This is information that is not needed to solve the problem, often caused by
people diverging from the problem itself, onto other topics they feel are
related or presenting too much information. Irrelevant information hinders
problem solving as it slows the process down, can cause confusion or
misunderstandings.
A brainstorming session can be impaired because people want to go off topic.
This is why many brainstorming sessions have a facilitator to get things back
on track. When gathering information, it can be getting distracted and looking
at something that is interesting but not useful. It can result in too much
information being collected, and people having trouble absorbing it.
For example, giving a problem-solving group full copies of all the information
found, rather than summarizing it as headlines, a graph or a mind map.
Problem-Solving Strategies
There are several different ways that people go about solving a problem. Some
of these strategies might be used on their own, but people may also employ a
range of approaches to figuring out and fixing a problem.
[Link]

• An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce the

correct solution. A mathematical formula is a good example of a
problem-solving algorithm.
• While an algorithm guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the
best approach to problem-solving. This strategy is not practical for
many situations because it can be so time-consuming. For example, if
you were trying to figure out all of the possible number combinations to
a lock using an algorithm, it would take a very long time.
[Link]

• A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work

in certain situations. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not always
guarantee a correct solution.
• However, using this problem-solving strategy does allow people to
simplify complex problems and reduce the total number of possible
solutions to a more manageable set.
[Link] and Error

• A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number

of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work. This
approach can be a good option if you have a very limited number of
options available.
• If there are many different choices, you are better off narrowing down
the possible options using another problem-solving technique before
attempting trial-and-error.
[Link] (Gut Instincts / Insight Problem-Solving)

• In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden

insight. This can occur because you realize that the problem is actually
similar to something that you have dealt with in the past.
• When we use insight as a problem-solving strategy, we depend on our
“gut instincts” or what we know and feel about a situation to come up
with a solution. People might describe insight-based solutions to
problems as an “aha moment.”
• In insight problem-solving, the cognitive processes that help you solve a
problem happen outside your conscious awareness.
[Link]–End Analysis

• Means–end analysis is a problem-solving strategy that helps you get

from “point A” to “point B” by examining and coming up with solutions to
obstacles.
• When using means–end analysis, you define the current state or
situation (where you are now) and the intended goal. Then, you come up
with solutions to get from where you are now to where you need to be.
• Example:
• A student may face the problem of how to successfully get through
finals season. They haven’t started studying, but their end goal is to
pass all of their finals. Using means–end analysis, the student can
examine the obstacles that stand between their current state and their
end goal.
• For instance, one obstacle may be getting distracted by friends. A
solution could be putting the phone on “do not disturb” mode while
studying.
[Link] Backward

• Working backward is a problem-solving approach often taught to help

students solve problems in mathematics, but it is useful for real-world
problems as well.
 • Working backward means starting with the solution and then “working
backward” to figure out how you got to the solution.
• Example:
• If you need to be at a party by 8 p.m., you might work backward to
determine when you must leave the house, when you need to start
getting ready, and so on.

CREATIVITY
Introduction
Creativity may be defined as the ability or capacity of a person to discover and
explore new areas, to create or produce a new idea, object, or process,
including the rearrangement or reshaping of what already exists.
Creativity involves two processes:

• Thinking
• Producing

In simple terms, creativity is the ability to transcend traditional ways of

thinking or acting and to develop new and original ideas, methods, or objects.
It is the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and
possibilities.
Definitions of Creativity
Spearman (1931):
Creativity is the power of the human mind to create new contents by
transforming relations and thereby generating new correlates.
Bartlett (1958):
Creativity is adventurous thinking—breaking away from the main track,
breaking out of the mould, being open to experience, and allowing one idea to
lead to another.
David Ausubel (1963):
Creativity is a generalized constellation of intellectual abilities, personality
variables, and problem-solving traits.

R. Stagner & T. F. Karwoski (1973):

Creativity involves originality, flexibility, and the ability to see new
relationships.

Convergent vs Divergent Thinking

[Link] Thinking

• Focuses on finding a single, correct solution

• Logical, analytical, and structured
• Uses deductive reasoning, facts, and rules
• Common in mathematics and objective problem-solving
• Results in one definite answer

[Link] Thinking

• Focuses on generating multiple creative solutions

• Creative, spontaneous, and free-flowing
• Uses imagination, intuition, and experimentation
• Common in brainstorming, design, and innovation
• Results in many possible answers

Stages of Creativity (Graham Wallas – 1926)

Graham Wallas, in The Art of Thought, proposed a four-stage model of the
creative process:

1. Preparation
This stage involves gathering information, facts, and material relevant to the
problem. The problem is examined, and a plan of action is formulated. If
necessary, the plan may be modified, alternative methods may be tried, or
additional data may be gathered.
Sometimes frustration occurs when the problem cannot be solved
immediately, leading to temporarily setting it aside.
2. Incubation
This stage involves deliberately or voluntarily turning away from the problem.
It may include rest, sleep, or engaging in other activities. During this period,
interfering ideas fade, and the unconscious mind begins working on the
solution. Experiences during this stage may later provide clues to the solution.
3. Illumination
This stage represents the classic “aha” or “eureka” moment, where the
solution suddenly becomes clear. Illumination is not purely accidental; it is
often the result of prior preparation and incubation.
4. Verification / Implementation
In this final stage, the idea is evaluated, analyzed, refined, and tested. The
solution is polished to ensure it is useful, valid, and practical. Prototypes may
be created, and necessary improvements are made based on feedback.

Decision Making
• Decision-making involves selecting a course of action among several
alternative possibilities.
• Decision-making can be regarded as a cognitive process resulting in the
selection of a belief or a course of action from multiple alternatives.
Every decision-making process produces a final choice that may or may
not prompt action.
 • Decision-making is the study of identifying and choosing alternatives
based on the values and preferences of the decision maker. It is one of
the central activities of management and plays a major role in
implementation processes.
• Decision-making can also be regarded as a problem-solving activity
terminated by a solution deemed satisfactory. It may be rational or
irrational, and can be based on explicit assumptions or tacit
assumptions.

Language and Thought

Introduction
Language and thought are closely related cognitive processes. Language is a
system of symbols used for communication, while thought refers to mental
processes such as reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Psychologists and linguists have long debated the relationship between
language and thought — whether language shapes thought or thought shapes
language.

THE 5 COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE

These are the five basic rule systems found in language:

• Syntax – rules that govern word order to form phrases, clauses, and
sentences
• Morphology – rules that govern change in meaning at the word level
• Phonology – rules that govern the structure, distribution, and
sequencing of speech sounds
• Semantics – rules that govern the meaning and context of words or
grammatical units
 • Pragmatics – rules that govern how language is used across
communication contexts
These components work together and are essential for everyday
communication.
[Link]

• Syntax is the study of how words and phrases are arranged to form
sentences.
• English typically follows a subject–verb–object order.
• Example:
• “Daniel loves the llama.”
• Changing the order changes the meaning.

[Link]

• Morphology is the study of the structure and construction of words.

• A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning
• Example:
• sing = one morpheme
• singing = two morphemes (sing + -ing)
• watermelons = water + melon + -s

[Link]

• Phonology is the study of phonemes and the rules for combining them.
• A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound
• Example: pea vs. tea
• Phonological rules determine:
• where sounds can appear in words
• how sounds are sequenced

[Link]

• Semantics is the study of meaning in language.

• It includes:
 • vocabulary development
• synonyms and antonyms
• multiple-meaning words
• figurative language
• Understanding word relationships helps determine meaning in
sentences.
[Link]

• Pragmatics is the study of how language is used socially.

• It includes:
• knowing what to say and how to say it
• body language and facial expressions
• gestures and eye contact
• conversational skills (requests, comments, topic maintenance)
• Pragmatics focuses on language use, not structure.

Language Acquisition
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the ability to
understand, produce, and use language for communication. It includes
learning to speak, listen, read, write, and even use sign language.
Psychologists and linguists have proposed different theories to explain how
language is acquired.

Theories of Language Development

There are three main theories of language development:

• Nativist Theory
• Behaviourist Theory
• Interactionist Theory

1. Nativist Theory
Proposed by: Noam Chomsky
Main Idea:

• The Nativist Theory states that language is innate (inborn) and humans
are biologically programmed to acquire language.

• Noam Chomsky was the first linguist to propose the Nativist Theory.
• He criticized the Behaviourist view, arguing that imitation and
reinforcement alone cannot explain language learning.
• Children learn language very quickly and effortlessly, despite being
exposed to limited and imperfect language input.
• According to Chomsky, humans are born with an innate language
faculty.
• This inborn ability is called Universal Grammar (UG).
• Universal Grammar contains a set of rules and principles common to all
languages.
• Children do not simply copy language; they form rules and create new
sentences they have never heard before.
• This explains why children often make grammatical mistakes (e.g.,
“goed” instead of “went”), showing rule formation.
• Chomsky introduced the concept of Language Acquisition Device
(LAD).
• LAD helps children analyze language input and form grammatical
structures.
• Children are born with a set of possible grammatical options.
• By listening to their parents and others, children set the parameters of
their language.
• This process is called parameter setting.
• Language acquisition happens naturally and unconsciously.
• Language learning is guided by biological factors, not just
environmental input.
2. Behaviourist Theory
Proposed by: B.F. Skinner
Main Idea:

• The Behaviourist Theory states that language is learned through

imitation, repetition, and reinforcement.

• Skinner proposed that language acquisition is really one big and

complex case of conditioning.
• At its core, it is all pattern recognition — associating words with
meanings.
• Language is acquired through principles of conditioning.
• Including association, imitation, and reinforcement.
• According to this theory, children learn words by associating sounds
with objects, actions, and events.
• Language Learning Process
• Language acquisition is a stimulus–response mechanism.
• In the early stages of language development, an infant doesn’t have the
ability to talk but listens.
• This means that understanding comes first.
• The infant receives comprehensible input.
• In the behaviorist view, language is reinforced input.

• Summary of the Theory

• LISTEN (motivating operation)
• IMITATE (discriminative stimuli)
• RECEIVE A REWARD (response)
• REPEAT OR RECALL (reinforcing stimuli)

3. Interactionist Theory
Proposed by: Jerome Bruner (influenced by Piaget & Vygotsky)
Main Idea:

• The Interactionist Theory states that language develops through the

interaction of biological ability and social environment.
• Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist best known for his
sociocultural theory. He believed that social interaction plays a critical
role in children’s learning and that culture profoundly influences this
process.

• Language development is both biological and social.

• Language is influenced by the child’s desire to communicate with
others.
• Children are born with a powerful brain that matures slowly and
predisposes them to acquire understanding.
• Children are motivated to share with others.
• Social interaction helps children learn language for communication use.

The Relationship between Language and Thought

The connection between language and thought is profound. The majority of
our everyday life involves the use of language. We tell our ideas to others with
language, we “read” their responses and understand their meanings with
language, and very often, we “speak” internally to ourselves when we process
this information and make logical conclusions. It seems that rational thinking¹
unavoidably involves certain degree of the use of language. This connection
seems so tight that, some linguists like Sapir and Whorf had to propose that
thought is indeed utterly determined by language.

On the other hand, some linguists hold that language and thought are two
separate and independent entities. The differences in the syntactic structure
and the lexicons available in different languages, for example, cannot possibly
determine the way these people think. Thus we have thought in the very first
place, and then language came in as a tool for expressing our thought.
Still some others, not feeling contented with either version, proposed a third
possibility, that language and thought are interdependent. “Language is a
regular part of the process of thinking… It is not a question of one notion
taking precedence over the other, but of both notions being essential.²”
While the conclusion on this issue is not a simple this-or-that answer and
cannot be easily drawn, this paper will nevertheless try to provide adequate
evidences in linguistics and psychological studies and seek for a reasonable
conclusion.

INTELLIGENCE
• Intelligence came from the Latin word intelligere meaning “to
understand”.
• Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ
from one another.
• It also provides an understanding of how people adapt their behaviour
according to the environment in which they live.
• Intelligence is the ability of an individual to cope with his environment.
• Intelligence characterizes the whole behaviour of an individual and is
the sum of her/his abilities which are quantitatively differentiable.
DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE

• Intelligence is the ability to judge well, reason well and act well. (Binet)
• Intelligence is the global or aggregate capacity of an individual to think
rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his
environment. (Wechsler)

DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE
1. Hereditary Factors
Heredity refers to genetically transmitted characteristics from generation to
the next. We inherit genetic code from parents. Because of genetic code, a
fertilized human egg never grows into a dog or a mouse or any other animal.
Person’s genetic heritage is called genotype. The genotype expresses itself in
observable appearance and behavior, which is called phenotype. The
phenotype includes height, weight, eye color, and psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, personality and creativity.
The genetic code provides the base on which phenotype grows and manifests.
How can we know that human intelligence has a genetic basis? To do so, we
have to infer the underlying genotypes from the observable phenotypic
behavior.
A strategy to understand genotypes from phenotypes is to examine the
similarities between the intelligence level of children, and their parents and
relatives. Francis Galton (1885) was of the view that intelligence is largely
inherited, and it runs in families. Researchers have found that parents with
high IQs tend to have children with high IQs, and parents with low IQs have
children with relatively low IQs (Crooks and Stein, 1995).
Correlations between IQs of brothers, sisters, children and their parents, and
their distant relatives indicate that intelligence has a strong hereditary
component (Kagan and Havemann, 1976). The correlation between the IQs of
one child and another person selected at random would tend to be zero, while
among the related individuals the correlations would be relatively high.
In more recent times, Arthur Jensen (1969) raised a hostile controversy when
he argued that intelligence is primarily inherited. He examined several studies
on intelligence, many of which involved comparisons of identical and fraternal
twins. Jensen found support in these studies for his argument in favor of the
genetic influence on intelligence.
He claimed that clear-cut genetic differences are present in the average
intelligence of races, nationalities, and social classes. He stated that blacks
have lower genetic intelligence than whites, and that is why they do not
perform as well as whites on intelligence tests.
He and others have placed the importance of heredity’s influence on
intelligence at about 80 percent, leaving only 20 percent to be manipulated by
the environment. He believed that environmental manipulations can at best
reduce group differences in intelligence, but cannot abolish it altogether. But
Jensen’s views have been severely criticized, and he has been labeled as a
racist.
Psychologists have drawn evidence from a number of studies to examine the
relative influence of hereditary and environmental factors on intelligence. The
two kinds of studies discussed below are:
(a) studies of twin children; and
(b) studies involving adopted children.

[Link] Studies
Twins are of two types: identical twins and fraternal twins. Identical twins
originate from a single fertilized egg and share the same genetic code. The
fraternal twins arise from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm
cells. While identical twins show a 100 percent genetic overlap, fraternal
twins have 50 percent genetic similarity, which is no greater than that between
ordinary siblings.
If identical twins turn out to be more similar in their intelligence as compared
to fraternal twins, the evidence for the hereditary factors would be strong.
The average correlation coefficients between the IQs of children having
different degrees of genetic similarity provide insightful analysis of the
correlation and will clarify several points regarding the relative role of heredity
and environment in shaping individual’s intelligence.
[Link] Studies
Another line of evidence comes from the studies on adopted children. In one
study (Horn, 1983), the correlation between the IQs of children and their
biological mothers (whom they had never seen) was .28, which was much
higher than a correlation of .15 between their IQs and their adoptive mothers.
Other studies have also shown that children’s intelligence is more similar to
their biological parents than to their adoptive parents (Scarr and Carter-
Saltzman, 1983). This pattern of similarity persists into adolescence. Those
favoring an environmental position argue that children of poor and under-
educated parents, when adopted into families of high socioeconomic status,
exhibit very large increase in their IQ scores.
But the findings showed that when the socioeconomic status of both
biological and adoptive parents is equal, the IQs of adopted children do not
rise; instead, it is found to be more similar to their biological parents. All these
findings lend support to hereditary influence on intelligence.

[Link] Factors
Heredity alone cannot account for all the individual differences in intelligence.
Environment also has a role to play. Environment consists of a wide range of
stimulations that the child is subjected to. He lives and grows in his
environment. It provides him the necessary input and experiential base for
intellectual development. Enrichment or deficiency of the environment would
obviously produce differences in his abilities.
The information given above can be used to support environment’s role.
Though fraternal twins and siblings share the same genetic similarity (50
percent), the correlation between the IQs of fraternal twins is a bit higher than
that of ordinary siblings (.60 versus .47). This is because environmental
opportunities and experiences are more similar for fraternal twins than for
ordinary siblings.
When researchers have manipulated children’s environment by providing
extra intellectual input, they have observed a remarkable improvement (up to
30 IQ points) in the IQ scores of children.

Hence, the role of environment cannot be underestimated. Furthermore, we

can change the environment of the child, not his genetic make up. Thus,
irrespective of genetic make up adults should carefully monitor child’s
environment to help him perform at optimal efficiency level.
Environment starts showing its actions right from the moment of conception.
Both the prenatal environment (when the baby/fetus is in mother’s womb),
and the postnatal environment (after the child is born) influence intellectual
capabilities of the child.

[Link] and Culture

Many studies have noted racial and cultural differences in performance on
standardized intelligence tests (Jensen, 1969; Kennedy, 1966; Jensen, 1969).
Studies conducted by Lesser, Fifer, and Clark (1965) investigated the verbal
reasoning, numerical facility, and space conceptualization of children from
groups: Jewish, Chinese, Puerto Rican and black.
They found that racial membership significantly influenced both the pattern
and level of intellectual competence. In fact, racial differences were more
prominent than the SES differences. Culture refers to a system of beliefs,
attitudes, and values that is passed from one generation to the next. In Indian
context, there are prominent subcultures defined by caste groups and
traditional parental occupations.
The socialization practices in these subcultures are different. Studies have
been conducted in rural Orissa comparing children of different groups. The
Harijan children scored lowest among the three groups and the Brahmins
scored the highest. The Brahmins have a highly verbal articulate culture
compared to the other groups; studies conducted in this region (Das and
Singha, 1974; Jachuck and Mohanty, 1974) have reported significant
differences in the cognitive level of children differing by caste, culture, and
SES.

[Link] Differences
The overall IQ scores of boys and girls are very similar. There is some evidence
that sex differences exist for particular kinds of cognitive abilities. Review of a
number of studies has shown that females are superior in language skills,
verbal fluency, and reading, while males are superior in mathematical
reasoning and spatial abilities (Oetzel, 1966). While neither sex is superior, the
two sexes show different patterns of intellectual abilities.
These have been supported by several researchers. Some argue that
intellectual differences between sexes reflect different child-rearing practices
and socio-cultural training. Parents and society train boys and girls differently
in terms of what to expect from them. It is known that intelligence is related to
personality characteristics.
Boys are socialized in a way so as to promote self-reliance and competence,
which are positively correlated with intelligence. On the other hand, these
traits are discouraged in girls so that high intelligence is often considered a
masculine quality.
The sex differences also partly result from the fact that many items in
standardized intelligence tests are biased in favor of the male population.
Hence sex differences are the products of the test itself. Researchers differ in
their convictions regarding sex differences. A group of researchers argue that
sex differences are reflections of constitutional and genetic difference
between males and females. The most reasonable conclusion is that
differential abilities are the products of some combination of genetic and
environmental factors.

Environmental Intelligence
Meaning
 • Environmental intelligence refers to the ability of an individual to
understand, interact with, and adapt effectively to the physical and
social environment.
• It involves awareness of environmental conditions and using this
understanding to solve problems and make decisions.
• It helps individuals adjust their behavior according to environmental
demands.
Definition of Environmental Intelligence

• Environmental intelligence is the capacity to perceive environmental

stimuli, understand their significance, and respond in an adaptive and
purposeful manner.
• It is the ability to use environmental resources wisely for survival,
development, and well-being.

Social Intelligence
• Social Intelligence (SI) is the ability to successfully build relationships
and navigate social environments.
• Strong relationships improve our immune system and help combat
disease.
• Loneliness and weak relationships are one of the major sources of
stress, health problems and depression.
• Our relationships affect every area of our lives – from colleagues to
spouses to friends to kids.
• The theory of social intelligence was first brought to the forefront by
American psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1920.
He defined it as,
• “The ability to understand and manage men and women and boys and
girls, to act wisely in human relations.”
• No one is born socially intelligent. Instead, it involves a set of skills that
an individual learns over time.
Emotional Intelligence
• Emotional intelligence represents the ability to perceive, appraise, and
express emotion accurately and adaptively; the ability to understand
emotion and emotional knowledge; the ability to access and/or
generate feelings when they facilitate cognitive activities and adaptive
action; and the ability to regulate emotions in oneself and others (Mayer
& Salovey, 1997).
• It refers to the ability to process emotion-laden information
competently and to use it to guide cognitive activities like problem
solving and to focus energy on required behaviors.
• Emotional intelligence could be an important predictor of success in
personal relationships, family functioning, and the workplace.

Definition of Emotional Intelligence

Mayer and Salovey (1997):
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, appraise, and express
emotions accurately; to understand emotions and emotional knowledge; and
to regulate emotions in oneself and others.

Daniel Goleman (1995):

Emotional intelligence is the capacity to recognize our own feelings and those
of others, to motivate ourselves, and to manage emotions effectively in
ourselves and in our relationships.

Spiritual Intelligence
• Spiritual intelligence (SI) is that intelligence which is required when we
begin to open up to our spirit’s journey and to quest for a greater
understanding of life.
• It’s what we seek for, to find higher purpose and a greater sense of self,
to become wise by accessing our natural birthright of wisdom.
Definition
According to Zohar & Marshall (2000), SI is described as:
“The intelligence with which we address and solve problems of meaning and
value; the intelligence with which we can place our actions and our lives in a
wider, richer, meaning-giving context; the intelligence with which we can
assess that one course of action or one life-path is more meaningful than
another.”
Concept of SI

• SQ (SI) is used to grow our human brains. The spiritual intelligence helps
an individual to become transformed for a better life.
• Spiritual intelligence is used when one need to be flexible, visionary or
creatively spontaneous.
• It helps in dealing with existential problems. It gives an insight of what
life’s struggles are about.
• SQ helps in understanding the meaning and essential motive behind all
great religions.
• Spiritual intelligence helps an individual to go beyond his immediate
ego/self to live a life at a deeper level of meaning.
• It is through spiritual intelligence that one can fight with the problems of
good & bad, and life & death.
Principles of SI (Danah Zohar)

• Self awareness
• Spontaneity
• Being vision and value led
• Holism
• Compassion
• Celebration of diversity
• Field independence
• Humility
 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
[Link]’S TWO FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

• Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence, also known as the g-

theory, was proposed by British psychologist Charles Spearman in the
early 1900s.
• Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory suggests that intelligence is a
combination of both general and specific factors. The theory states that
intelligence is comprised of two factors:
• a general ability factor (g) and
• specific ability factors (s).
• The general ability factor (g) represents a person’s overall level of
cognitive ability. It is the underlying factor that influences performance
on all mental tasks.
• On the other hand, specific ability factors (s) represent an individual’s
unique abilities in specific areas such as verbal comprehension,
numerical reasoning, spatial ability, and so on.
• These factors contribute to a person’s overall intelligence but are not as
important as the general ability factor.
• Spearman argued that the general ability factor (g) is related to many
aspects of cognitive functioning including perception, attention,
memory, and reasoning. He believed that this factor is largely inherited
and is not influenced by environmental factors.
• However, the specific ability factors (s) can be influenced by education,
training, and other environmental factors.
Characteristics of ‘g’

• ‘g’ is a universal and inborn ability.

• ‘g’ varies from person to person but remains constant within a person.
• ‘g’ is common in all life activities.
 • ‘g’ is responsible for success in life.
• Whenever we talk of testing intelligence, we actually mean to measure
‘g’ with the help of intelligence tests.
Characteristics of ‘s’

• ‘s’ is learned and acquired from the environment.

• ‘s’ is closely associated with the aptitude of a person.
• ‘s’ varies from person to person.

General Factor vs Specific Factor

General Factor

• Gift of Nature
• Inborn ability
• General mental ability
• Constant
• Used in every life activity
• Greater role in success in life

Specific Factor

• Gift of Nurture
• Learned ability
• Acquired from environment
• Varies from activity to activity
• Individuals differ

[Link] GROUP FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

• The Thurstone group factor theory of intelligence, also known as the

multiple factor theory of intelligence, was proposed by Leon Thurstone
in the 1930s.
• Thurstone believed that intelligence is not a single entity, but a
combination of distinct primary mental abilities.
 • He identified seven primary mental abilities that he believed were the
foundation of intelligence. Each contributes to an individual’s overall
cognitive ability in different ways.

The seven primary mental abilities proposed by Thurstone are:

• Verbal Comprehension – grasping the meaning of words, concepts, and

ideas
• Numerical Abilities – speed and accuracy in numerical and
computational skills
• Spatial Relations – visualizing patterns and forms
• Perceptual Speed – speed in perceiving details
• Word Fluency – using words fluently and flexibly
• Memory – accuracy in recalling information
• Inductive Reasoning – deriving general rules from presented facts

• Thurstone believed that each of these primary mental abilities was

relatively independent of the others, meaning a person could be strong
in one area but weak in another.
• However, he also recognized the existence of a general factor that
accounted for some of the variation in scores across the primary
abilities. His theory emphasized the importance of specific abilities and
rejected the idea that intelligence is a single, unitary concept.

[Link]-HORN THEORY OF FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE

(1963)

• The Cattell-Horn theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence suggests

that intelligence is composed of a number of different abilities that
intersect and work together to produce overall individual intelligence.
 • Fluid intelligence is the ability to think and reason abstractly and solve
problems. This ability is considered independent of learning,
experience, and education.
Examples of the use of fluid intelligence include solving puzzles and
coming up with problem-solving strategies.
• Crystallized intelligence is learning from past experiences and learning.
Situations that require crystallized intelligence include reading
comprehension and vocabulary exams. This type of intelligence is
based upon facts and rooted in experiences. This type of intelligence
becomes stronger as we age and accumulate new knowledge and
understanding.

[Link] TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

The Sternberg Triarchic Theory of Intelligence is a theory proposed by
psychologist Robert J. Sternberg in the 1980s that identifies three distinct
aspects of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical. Sternberg’s theory
suggests that intelligence is a multifaceted construct that cannot be
adequately captured by a single measure or definition.
[Link] intelligence
Academic problem solving and computation
[Link] intelligence
Imaginative and innovative problem solving
[Link] intelligence

Street smarts and common sense

Different type of Intelligence according to him:

[Link] intelligence
This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to analyze, evaluate, and solve
problems using logical reasoning and critical thinking.
It includes the ability to analyze information, break down complex problems
into their component parts, and evaluate the pros and cons of different
solutions.
[Link] intelligence
This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to generate novel ideas, think
outside the box, and solve problems in new and innovative ways. It includes
the ability to approach problems from different angles, make connections
between seemingly unrelated concepts, and generate new and original
solutions.
Creative intelligence is often associated with artistic and scientific creativity
and is not typically measured by standardized tests.
3. Practical intelligence:

This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to adapt to and navigate real-
world situations, including social situations.
It includes the ability to use common sense, practical knowledge, and
interpersonal skills to solve problems and achieve goals.

According to Sternberg that intelligence is not simply a fixed trait, but rather a
dynamic and malleable set of abilities that can be improved over time through
experience and practice.
Sternberg also suggests that intelligence is not domain-specific, meaning that
individuals can possess high levels of intelligence in one aspect (e.g., creative
intelligence) but not in another (e.g., analytical intelligence).

[Link] GARDNER’S THEORY ON MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Multiple intelligences is a theory first posited by Harvard developmental
psychologist Howard Gardner in 1983.
The human ability to solve problems or to make something that is valued in
one or more cultures.

The theory of multiple intelligence is Howard Gardner’s theory that proposes:

• That people are not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have.
• It says that intelligence can be learned through life.
• Claims that everyone is intelligent in at least nine different ways and can
develop each aspect of intelligence to an average level of competency.
• Intelligence, as defined by Gardner, is the ability to solve problems or
fashion products that are valuable in one or more cultural settings.

This theory suggests human intelligence can be differentiated into the

following modalities:
visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, musical-rhythmic, logical-mathematical,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic and bodily-kinesthetic.

[Link]-Linguistic Intelligence
• Strong language and communication skills

• Proficient in reading, writing, and speaking

• Excellent memory for words and language patterns

[Link]-Mathematical Intelligence
• Ability to reason, solve problems, and think abstractly
• Strong mathematical and logical thinking skills
• Analytical and critical thinking abilities

[Link] Intelligence
• Strong visual and spatial perception
• Ability to visualize and manipulate objects in space
• Good sense of direction and orientation

[Link]-Kinesthetic Intelligence

• Excellent coordination and control of body movements

• Highly skilled in physical activities and sports
• Ability to learn through physical experiences

[Link] Intelligence

• Sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, and tones

• Ability to recognize and create music
• Strong appreciation for music and musical patterns

[Link] Intelligence
• Ability to understand and relate to others

• Skilled in communication and building relationships

• Empathetic and sensitive to others’ emotions
[Link] Intelligence
• Self-awareness and understanding of one’s own emotions
• Ability to reflect on oneself and make personal connections

• Strong sense of self and personal values

[Link] Intelligence
• Strong connection and understanding of the natural world
• Ability to recognize and categorize natural objects and phenomena
• Appreciation for nature and the environment

[Link]’S STRUCTURE OF THE INTELLECT

• J. P. Guilford developed the idea of specific intelligence factors into a

very detailed model beginning in the 1950s. Guilford (1967) conceives of
intelligence as being a combination of three dimensions, shown in the
below model.
• Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (SOI) theory states that a person’s
success in general intelligence may be traced all the way back to
fundamental mental talents or intellectual elements.
• He used up to 150 different mental capacities and arranged them into
three categories in his SOI model: operations, content, and products.
GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF THE INTELLECT

• According to him, intelligence depends on:

• Mental operations (process of thinking)

• Content (what we think about)
• Product (result of our thinking)
• By content, he meant that different people seemed to pay more
attention to and think more effectively about different kinds of
information.
[Link] DIMENSION

• Visual – Information perceived through seeing.

• Auditory – Information perceived through hearing.
• Kinesthetic – Information perceived through one’s own physical actions.
• Symbolic – Information perceived as symbols or signs that have no
meaning by themselves; e.g., Arabic numerals or the letters of an
alphabet.
• Semantic – Which is concerned with verbal meaning and ideas.
• Behavioral – Information perceived as acts of people.

[Link] DIMENSION

• SI includes six operations or general intellectual processes:

• Cognition – The ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and
become aware of information.
• Memory recording – The ability to encode information.
• Memory retention – The ability to recall information.
• Divergent production – The ability to generate multiple solutions to a
problem; creativity.
• Convergent production – The ability to deduce a single solution to a
problem; rule-following or problem-solving.
• Evaluation – The ability to judge whether or not information is accurate,
consistent, or valid.

[Link] DIMENSION
 • As the name suggests, this dimension contains results of applying
particular operations to specific contents. The SI model includes six
products, in increasing complexity:

• Units – Single items of knowledge.

• Classes – Sets of units sharing common attributes.
• Relations – Units linked as opposites or in associations, sequences, or
analogies.
• Systems – Multiple relations interrelated to comprise structures or
networks.
• Transformations – Changes, perspectives, conversions, or mutations to
knowledge.
• Implications – Predictions, inferences, consequences, or anticipations
of knowledge.

[Link]-FACTOR THEORY OF THORNDIKE

• Thorndike was an Associationist and he opposed the theory of General

intelligence.
• He proposed that there are specific stimuli and specific responses.
• Intelligence is nothing more than a convenient name for almost an
infinite number of actual or potential specific connections between
stimuli and responses.
• Thorndike found that all factors in intelligence represent a specific
mental ability, which are different from each other but associated like
bricks on a wall.
• According to the theory
• Intelligence is said to be constituted of a multitude of separate factors
or elements, each being a minute element or ability.
 • Thorndike's Multi-Factor Theory suggests that intelligence is not a single
entity, but a combination of various factors. It focuses on different
dimensions of intelligence including abstract, mechanical, social, and
concrete types of intelligence.
The Four Dimensions of Intelligence

1. Level: Complexity or difficulty of tasks one can manage.

2. Range: Variety of areas or tasks one can handle.
3. Area: Specific domains where intelligence is applied.
4. Speed: How quickly one processes information.

1. Level

• It refers to the difficulty or complexity of tasks that an individual can

handle.
• It highlights how advanced or challenging the problems a person can
solve are.
• For example, solving complex mathematical equations demonstrates a
high level of intelligence.
2. Range

• It refers to the diversity of situations or types of problems that a person

can manage.
• A person with a broad range of intelligence is versatile and capable of
functioning in various contexts.
• For example, excelling in both science and arts suggests a wide range of
intelligence.
3. Area

• It refers to the specific field or domain in which intelligence is applied.

 • Some individuals may be highly skilled in technical or mechanical tasks,
while others excel in social situations.
• For example, mechanical intelligence focuses on problem-solving in
engineering tasks.
4. Speed

• It reflects how quickly an individual can process information and solve

problems.
• It emphasizes the efficiency of cognitive functioning.
• For example, being able to quickly analyze data and make decisions
shows high speed in intelligence

He assumed that intelligence involves Three mutually independent abilities:

• Social Intelligence – ability to communicate with people, understand

and perform in social relations.
• Concrete Intelligence – ability to effectively control your body and
manipulate objects.
• Abstract Intelligence – ability related to verbal and symbolic thinking.

Thorndike found that all factors in intelligence represent a specific mental

ability, which are different from each other but associated like bricks on a
wall.

ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
One of the achievement of modern psychology is the development of
scientific devices of measuring general mental ability or intelligence. These
have been called intelligence tests. They are the result of a belief that
intelligence exists in a certain amount that varies in individuals, and
everything that exists in a certain amount can be measured.
1. Stanford – Binet Intelligence Scale:
The first practical scale for measuring intelligence was developed by two
French psychologists, Alfred Binet and Theodor Simon. Their scale consisted
of question and problems, graded in difficulty, for different age groups from
three to 15 years. Their aim was to develop an objective test to identify
children likely to have difficulty in regular classes. The Binet – Simon test was
adapted by lewis Terman and became known as the Stanford – Biner
Intelligence Scale. These scales have been revised and adapted for use in
different countries. Originally designed for children, the fifth edition (2003) of
the test can be used on anyone older than two years of age. The test covers six
areas – general intelligence, knowledge, fluid reasoning, quantitative
reasoning, visual – spatial processing and working memory. The number of
correct responsed is converted to a standard age score which is based on the
chronological age of the individual. An India adaptation called the Binet –
Kamat test of Intelligence has been extensively used. The test extends from
age three to 22.

[Link] Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is used to test adults. The
WAIS-R, the 1981 revision of the original Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, is
designed for adults aged 16-74 years. The scale has two parts – a verbal scale
with six subtests including information, digit span, vocabulary, arithmetic,
comprehension, similarities and a performance scale with five subtests
including picture completion, picture arrangement, block design, object
assembly and digit symbol. Based on the results, verbal IQ, performance IQ
and a composite full scale IQ can be obtained. The Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children (WISC) is an individual test that can be used from six to
years and all the subtests – symbol search and mazes. The Wechsler
Preschool and primary Scale of Intelligence ( WPPSI)is designed for children
from the age of two years six months to seven year three months.

TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

 Tests of intelligence can be classified as follows:
Individual vs Group tests

i) Individual tests are administered on a single individual by the tester. They

allow direct observation of the rest – taking behaviours, and thus serve a
diagnostic purpose. It is important to establish a good rapport before the test
so that valid results can be obtained. However, It can be time consuming and
may increase the cost of testing. The skill and experience of the tester is also
an important factor. The Stanford – Biner and the Wechsler scales are
examples of individual tests.
ii) Group testing was developed during world war I to recruit people into the
army. The Army Alpha test was designed and administered to recruits who
were literate and proficient in English, While the Army Beta test was
administered to foreign-and proficient in English, While the Army Beta test
was administered to foreign born recruits or those who could not read with
proficiency. The main advantages of group tests are that they can be
administered to very large numbers simultaneously. It also simplifies the
examiner’s role and scoring is more objective.

[Link] Group non-verbal intelligence tests

➢ These tests do not necessitate the use of language and are applied to the
group of individuals at a time.

➢ Test materials in the non-verbal tests used for group testing, is provided in a
booklet and requires the use of pencil by the testee.

➢ It contains pictures, diagrams and geometrical figures etc in printed

booklet.

➢ The examples of such type of tests are;

✓ Army Beta Test: It was developed in world war I in USA for testing the
intelligence of those soldiers who were either illiterate or were not used to
English language.

✓ Chicago Non-verbal Test: This non-verbal test has been proved most useful
for the young children aged 12 and 13 years.

[Link] group Verbal Intelligence Tests

• The tests which necessitate the use of language and are applied to a group
of individuals at a time come under this category. Some of the earlier tests
belonging to this category are;

❖ Army Alpha Test (developed in world War I)

❖ Army general Classification Test (developed in world war II)

Today we have so many group verbal tests. Some of the popular tests of this
nature are;

❖ The Group Test of General Mental Ability constructed by Dr. S. Jalota (Hindi)

❖ Group Test of Intelligence, prepared by Bureau of psychology, Allahabad

(Hindi)

EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
Extremes in intelligence are the extreme highs and lows of the intelligence
spectrum. Above a 135 IQ is considered gifted and below 70 is considered
mentally retarded. Below 70 there are sub categories. These categories are
mild and moderate, and severe and profound.
Intellectual giftedness

Intellectual giftedness is an intellectual ability significantly higher than

average. It is different from a skill, in that skills are learned or acquired
behaviors. Like a talent, intellectual giftedness is usually believed to be an
innate, personal aptitude for intellectual activities that cannot be acquired
through personal effort.

Intellectual giftedness may be general or specific. For example, an

intellectually gifted person may have a striking talent for mathematics, but not
have equally strong language skills.
Recognizing the Characteristics of Gifted Children
• Gifted children's behaviour differs from that of their age-mates in the
following ways:

• Many gifted children learn to read early, with better comprehension of the
nuances of language. As much as half the gifted and talented population has
learned to read before entering school.
• Gifted children often read widely, quickly, and intensely and have large
vocabularies.

Gifted children commonly learn basic skills better, more quickly, and with less
practice.
• They take less for granted, seeking the "hows" and "whys."
• They can work independently at an earlier age and can concentrate for
longer periods.
• They usually respond and relate well to parents, teachers, and other adults.
They may prefer the company of older children and adults to that of their
peers.
• They like to learn new things, are willing to examine the unusual, and are
highly inquisitive.
• They tackle tasks and problems in a well-organized, goal-directed, and
efficient manner.
• They exhibit an intrinsic motivation to learn, find out, or explore and are often
very persistent. "I'd rather do it myself" is a common attitude.
Who are the highly Gifted?
Highly gifted children tend to be those who demonstrate asynchronous
development. Due to their high cognitive abilities and high intensities they
experience and relate to the world in unique ways. These children are often
found as a result of extremely high scores on individually scored IQ tests,
generally above the 140 IQ range. Others may be prodigies in areas such as
math, science, language and/or the arts. Profoundly gifted children can score
in excess of 170 IQ.
Highly gifted children demonstrate characteristics such as the extreme need
to:

• Learn at a much faster pace.

• Process material to a much greater depth.
• Show incredible intensity in energy, imagination, intellectual prowess,
sensitivity, and emotion which are not typical in the general population.

Intellectual disability
Mental retardation (MR) is a generalized disorder, characterized by
significantly impaired cognitive functioning and deficits in two or more
adaptive behaviours that appears before adulthood. It has historically been
defined as an Intelligence Quotient score under 70.[1] Once focused almost
entirely on cognition, the definition now includes both a component relating
to mental functioning and one relating to individuals' functional skills in their
environment. As a result, a person with a below-average intelligence quotient
(BAIQ) may not be considered mentally retarded.

Syndromic mental retardation is intellectual deficits associated with other

medical and behavioral signs and symptoms. Non-syndromic mental
retardation is intellectual deficits that appear without other abnormalities.

Signs and symptoms

Children with mental retardation may learn to sit up, to crawl, or to walk later
than other children, or they may learn to talk later. Both adults and children
with mental retardation may also exhibit the following characteristics:

• Delays in oral language development

• Deficits in memory skills
• Difficulty learning social rules
• Difficulty with problem solving skills
• Delays in the development of adaptive behaviours such as self-help or self-
care skills

• Lack of social inhibitors

Cause
The most common are:
• Genetic conditions. Sometimes disability is caused by abnormal genes
inherited from parents, errors when genes combine, or other reasons. The
most prevalent genetic conditions include Down syndrome, Klinefelter's
syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, Neurofibromatosis, congenital
hypothyroidism, Williams syndrome, Phenylketonuria (PKU), and Prader-Willi
syndrome. Other genetic conditions include Phelan-McDermid syndrome
(22q13del), Mowat-Wilson syndrome, genetic ciliopathy,[2] and Siderius type
X-linked mental retardation (OMIM 300263) as caused by mutations in the
PHF8 gene (OMIM 300560).[3][4] In the rarest of cases, abnormalities with the
X or Y chromosome may also cause disability. 48, XXX syndrome and 49,
XXXXY syndrome affect a small number of girls worldwide, while boys may be
affected by 47, XYY, 49, XXXXY, or 49, XYYYY.

• Problems during pregnancy. Mental disability can result when the fetus does
not develop properly. For example, there may be a problem with the way the
fetus' cells divide as it grows. A woman who drinks alcohol (see fetal alcohol
syndrome) or gets an infection like rubella during pregnancy may also have a
baby with mental disability.
• Problems at birth. If a baby has problems during labor and birth, such as not
getting enough oxygen, he or she may have a developmental disability due to
brain damage.
• Exposure to certain types of disease or toxins. Diseases like whooping
cough, measles, or meningitis can cause mental disability if medical care is
delayed or inadequate. Exposure to poisons like lead or mercury may also
affect mental ability.

• Malnutrition is a common cause of reduced intelligence in parts of the world

affected by famine, such as Ethiopia.[5]
• Absence of the arcuate fasciculus.