Distribution System Engineering

Master of Science Degree

Dr. H. M. Wijekoon

Chief Engineer (Planning & Development)-R3

644, Sri Jayawardanapura Mawatha
Ethulkotte
Course Content
Basic Distribution Systems
Voltage drop and Voltage Drop Compensation
Distribution Load Flows
Optimal Feeding Point and Capacitor Placement
Distribution Planning
Distribution Reliability
Power Quality
Distribution Protection
Distribution Automation
 References
Distribution System Modeling and Analysis, by William H
Kersting, CRC Press
 Electric Power Distribution, by A.S. Pabla, Tata McGra-Hill
Power System Analysis and Design, by B.R. Gupta, S. Chand

 R.C. Dugan, F. McGranaghan,H.W. Beaty, Electrical Power System

Quality, New York MacGra-Hill.
 A.T. Jhons and D.F. Warne, Voltage Quality in Electrical Power
System IEE Power and Energy Series 36.
 M.H.J. Bollen, Understand Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags
and Interruptions, IEEE Press.
A Layout of a Power System
Generation Station A Sub Transmission
TransmissionLine Line

Distribution
Sub-Station
Tie Line Substation

Large
Extremely Large
Consumers
Generation Station B Consumers

Captive Generation

Primary Feeder
Distributed Generator

Distribution Feeder

Service Lines Distribution

Transformer

Consumers
 A Layout of a Power System….

 Generation of AC (hydro, thermal, nuclear, diesel, non-conventional

sources etc.) 0.4/0.44, 6.6, 10.5, 11, 13.8, 15.75, 21, 33 kV)

 Tie-Line, interconnecting line between two power systems/areas)

and transmission: 220, 400, 500, 750, 765, 800 kV.

 High voltage DC transmission: 500, 800, 1400 kV for stable power

flows over long distance beyond 800-1600 km.

 High voltage sub transmission: 33, 66, 110, 132, 220 kV.

 High voltage primary distribution: 3.3, 6.6, 11, 22, 33, 66 kV.

 Low voltage distribution: 415/240 V.

 The consumer voltage may be Motors, heating, Chemical

equipment, electronic equipment, lighting etc.
 Distribution Substation
 A diagram of a very simple one-line distribution substation is shown
below.
 Although the figure displays the simplest distribution substation it
Illustrates the major components that will be found in all substations.
Sub transmission Line

Disconnector

Transformer

Voltage Regulator

Meters

Circuit Breakers

Primary Feeders
Distribution Substation…
High side and low side switching:
High side switching varies from simple disconnector to high voltage
circuit breakers while low side switching is accomplished with relay
operated circuit breakers.

In many cases reclosers will be used in place of the relay circuit
breaker combinations.

Voltage transformation:
 The primary function of a distribution substation is to reduce the
Voltage to the distribution voltage.

 The substation unit could be three single-phase units or

three-phase unit.
 Distribution Substation…
Protection
 The substation must be protected against the occurrence of short circuits.

 In the above design, the only automatic protection against short circuit inside
the substation is by way of the high side fuses on the transformers.

 When the substation design is more complex, more extensive protective

schemes will be employed to protect the transformer.

 The outside short circuits are protected by the individual feeder circuit
breakers or reclosers

Metering:

 Every substation has some form of metering. These meters record the
minimum, average, rms values of current, voltage, power, power factor etc.
 Breaker and a half scheme
Line 1
Normally closed circuit breaker

Line 2
X, Y, 1, 3, 4, 6
Normally opened circuit breakers
nc x nc Y Z, 2, 5
no
Z

T1 T2
nc no nc
1 2 3

F1 F3
no
4 5 6
nc nc
F2 F4
Breaker and a half scheme…

 With the above arrangement, each transformer is fed from a line.

 Individual transformer is feeding to two feeder, when one of the line

is out due to a fault either x or Y is opened and Z is closed.

Now both transformers are served from the same transmission line.

The transformers are sized such that each transformer can supply
all four feeders.

 If transformer T1 is out then breakers X, 1 and 4 are opened and

breaker 2 and 5 are closed.

 With this breaker arrangement, all four feeders are fed by

transformer T2.
Choice of a voltage

 The design of distribution line involves a number of technical and

economical aspects.

 The power capacity and distance of line are specified.

 The voltage regulation and efficiency are also specified.

The design detail include line voltage, size of conductor, span,

Spacing and configuration of conductors, number and size of
Earth wires, numbers of insulators, clearances, sag under operating
and erection conditions ect.
 Empirical formula for optimum voltage is given below.
0.5
L P  V – Voltage in kV
V  5.5  L – Distance in km
1.6 100  P - Power in kW
Choice of a voltage…

 The voltage selected determines the maximum length of individual

feeders and their loading, the number of feeders and the number of
distribution transformers supplied from each feeders.
 When selecting MV voltage, it is also important to consider the
availability of line routes, and substation sites.
 The standard voltages are 6.6 kV, 11kV, 22 kV, or 33 kV.
 Higher voltage level lead to higher insulation cost but also usually results
in lower conductor and system loss cost.
 However it needs higher line clearances. The voltage level leads to a
lower percentage voltage drop per unit length for a given loading.
 Hence longer feeder lengths are possible without using booster
transformers.
 The figure given below illustrates relative costs per km with line loading.
Choice of a voltage…

6.6 kV 11 kV
0.9 20 kV
Relative cost per km

0.8 33 kV
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4

40 80 120 160 200

Line loading kw/km

Figure indicates that based on a 20 km line, 33 kV is

cheaper than 20kV for line loading above 100 kW/km
Basic Distribution Systems
 Six basic distribution systems are used by electric utilities
1. Radial System
Load
Substation Bus

Load Load

 A radial system is connected to only one source of supply. It is exposed to many

interruption possibilities.
 The most important of which are those due to overhead line or underground cable
failures or transformer failures
 Each event may be accomplished by a long interruption.
 Both components (feeder and transformer) have finite failure rates and such
interruptions are expected and substantially predictable.
 This system is suitable for small loads.
 2. Primary Loop System

Load Load
A great improvement over a radial system
is obtained by arranging a primary loop,
which provides power from two feeders.
Substation Bus

R
Power flow to the consumer is by way of
Sectionalizer
a single path at any time from either side
of the loop, depending upon the open/
close status of sectionalizers and
Tie Switch reclosers
Load Sectionalizer
Load
Any section of the feeder can be isolated
without interruption and primary faults
are reduced in duration to the time
Substation Bus Sectionalizer
required to locate a fault and to the
R necessary switching to restore service.
Each line of the loop must have
sufficient capacity to carry all the loads.

Load Sensitive loads are affected by reclosing

Load
Under temporary fault conditions
3. Primary selective
Substation Bus Automatic Substation Bus
Feeder 1 Switch Feeder 2

`
Load

 It uses the same basic components as in the primary loop.

 Each transformer can have supply from two sources
 High voltage automatic switching is provided ahead of the consumer
transformer.
 In the event of loss of feeder, transfer to the second feeder is automatic
and the interruption duration can be limited to two or three seconds
 This scheme is normally used for large, essential or continuous process
industrial consumers.
 4. Secondary selective
Substation Bus Substation Bus
Feeder 1 Feeder 2 This system uses two transformers, each

`
Breaker Breaker
from a separate primary feeder and with
low voltage switching.
`

Load Switch 1 Load Switch 2

N.C.
The load is generally divided between two
N.C.
LT buses with both transformer
Tie continuously energized
NO Load Switch 3
N.O.
The tie switch on the secondary tie bus is
Load 1 Load 2
Automatic normally open and is interlocked with the
Switching Inter secondary feeder switched
Locking

This system is commonly used for industrial plants and institutions like
hospitals.
Duplicate transformers virtually eliminate the possibility of a long interruptions
due to failure.
Note that each transformer and feeder must have sufficient capacity to supply
the entire load.
Reliability is better than in the primary selective system because of the
additional redundancy of transformers
 5. Spot Network
Substation Bus

Breaker
(typically 2 - 6 feeders)

Isolating
Switches
Transformer

Circuit Breakers
with directional
protections
Spot Network
Bus

Spot Network

Maximum reliability and operating flexibility for most loads are taken by use of the
network, using two or more transformers in parallel.
It is similar to the closed ring system. The low voltage bus is continuously
energized by all units operating in parallel.
Automatic disconnection of any unit is obtained by sensitive reverse power relays
in the protection unit. If there is a fault in one feeder it is isolated by its protection
unit
 Spot networks are generally used in metropolitan or high load density areas for
large continuous process industries and essential service loads such as water
works etc.
6. Grid Network
Substation Bus

Grid networks provide maximum reliability and

operating flexibility

These networks are the most economical and

Effective method in servicing the high density
loads in metropolitan cities.

In the grid network, the grid is simultaneously

supplied from several feeders.

Voltage regulation is improved since power

flow to the consumer is through several
transformers operating in parallel

The grid can handle sudden load fluctuation and

Disturbances associated with large motor starting,
without severe voltage dips.
 The Nature of the loads
 The modeling and analysis of a power system depend on the load.
 However, the load in a power system is randomly changing.
 Also power system consists of different type of load and modeling of loads
Will be discussed in detail under load modeling.
 In order to describe the changing loads following terms are defined.

Demand:
Defined as the average load over specific period of time
 Load can be kW, kVar, kVA or A
 Must include the time interval
 Ex: The 15 mins kW demand is 100 kW
The Nature of the loads…

Maximum Demand:
Defined as the greatest of all the demands that occur during
specific period of time.
 Must include demand interval, period and units
Ex: 15 mins maximum kW demand for the week was 150 kW.

Average Demand:
The average of the demands over a specified period
 Must include demand interval, period and units
Ex: 15 mins average kW demand for the months was 350 kW

Total Energy
Average Demand 
Total hours
Diversified Demand:
Defined as the sump of demands imposed by group of loads over a
Particular period.
 Must include demand interval, Period and units
Ex: 15 mins diversified demand in the period ending at 9.30 is 200 Kw

Maximum Diversified Demand

Defined as the maximum of the sum of the demands imposed by a
Group of loads over a particular period.
 Must include demand interval, period and units
Ex: the 15 min maximum diversified kW demand for the week was 500 kW
Maximum Noncoincident Demand
For a group of loads, the sum of the individual maximum demands without any
Restriction that they occur at the same time.
 Must include demand interval, Period and units
Ex: The maximum noncoincident 15-mins, kW demand for the week was
700 kW
Demand Factor
Defined as the Ratio of maximum demand to rated capacity

Utilization Factor:
Ratio of the maximum demand to the rated capacity

Maximum Demand kVA

Utilizatio n Factor 
Rated kVA

Load Factor:
Ratio of the average demand of any customer or group of customers
Over a period to the maximum demand over the same period

Average Demand
Load Factor 
Maximum Demand
Total Energy Sales
Load Factor 
Maximum Demand * 8760
Diversity Factor:
Ratio of sum of non-coincident demand to maximum demand
Sum of Maximum Demand
Diversity Factor 
Maximum Demand

Load Diversity:
Difference between maximum noncoincident demand and the
Maximum diversified demand
 Feeder Load
The feeder load will display a smoothed-out demand curve.
 The demand curve does not display any of the abrupt changes in demand
as in an individual customer demand curve.
 The Simple explanation for this is that with several hundred customers
served by the feeder.
 the odds are good that as one customer is turning off a light bulb another
customer will be turning a bulb on.
The feeder load therefore does not experience a jump as would be seen in
the individual customers demand curve.
Load
(KW)
Load
(MW)

12.00 1.00 5.00

10.45 21.15 23.00
Customer Load
Feeder Demand
 Load Allocation

 In the analysis of a distribution feeder load, data will have to be specified.

 The data provided will depend upon how detailed the feeder is to be
modeled, and availability of customer load.
 The most comprehensive model of a feeder will represent every distribution
transformer.
 When this is the case, the load allocated to each transformer needs to be
determined.

(1) Allocation by Load Survey

Many times the maximum demand of individual customers will be known,
either from metering or from knowledge of the energy (kWh) consumed by
the customer.
Some utility companies will perform a load survey of similar customers in
order to determine the relationship between the energy consumption in kWh
and the maximum kW demand.
Such a load survey requires the installation of a demand meter at each
customer’s location.
 Load Survey…

At the end of the survey period the maximum demand Vs kWh for each
customer can be plotted on a common graph.
 Using linear regression analysis the relationship between kW demand
and kWh demand can be found.
 Example of such analysis is given below

Maximum demand (kW) = 0.1058 + 0.005014*(kWh energy demand)

Example:

A single phase lateral provides service to three distribution transformers as given

below. The energy in kWh consumed by each customer during a month is known. A
load survey has been conducted for customers in this class, and it has been found
that the customer 15-minute maximum kW demand is given by the equation.

kW demand = 0.2 + 0.008*kWh

The kWh consumed by each customer is given below.
Transformer T1:

Customer 1 2 3 4 5
kWh 1523 1645 1984 1590 1456

Transformer T2:
Customer 6 7 8 9 10 11
kWh 1235 1587 1698 1745 2015 1765

Transformer T3:
Customer 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
kWh 2098 1856 2058 2265 2135 1985 2103
N1 N2 N3 N4

T1 T2 T3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
(1) Determine for each transformer the 15-minute non-coincident maximum kW
demand and using the table of diversify factors given below, determine the 15-
minute maximum diversified kW demand.
(66.7 kW, 30.3, 81.6, 35.5, 117.5, 48.9 kW)

(2) Based on the 15 kW maximum kW diversified demand on each transformer

and an assumed power factor of 0.9, calculate 15 minute maximum kVA
diversified demand on each transformer. If the kVA rating of the transformer
are 25 kVA, 37.5 kVA and 50 kVA find which transformer would experience
overloading (33.6 kVA, 39.4 kVA, 54.4 kVA, T1, 135%)
(3)Determine the 15 minute non coincident maximum kW demand and 15
minute maximum diversified kW demand for each of the line segment, NIN2,
N2N3, N3N4 (N1N2-265.5kW, 92.8 kW, N2N3-199 kW, 72.6 kW, N3N4-117.4
kW, 48.9kW)
Diversity Factor is Given Below

No. of customers D/F No. F Customers D/F

1 1.00 11 2.67
2 1.60 12 2.70
3 1.80 13 2.74
4 2.10 14 2.78
5 2.20 15 2.80
6 2.30 16 2.82
7 2.40 17 2.74
8 2.55 18 2.86
9 2.60 19 2.88
10 2.65 20 2.90
(2) Allocation by Transformer Load Management
Used to determine the loading of distribution transformer based upon
a knowledge of the kWh supplied by the transformer at peak time.
This will help to augment the transformer
Also this can be used to allocate loads to transformers for feeder
analysis purpose.
The load management relates the maximum diversified demand of a
transformer to the total kWh supplied by the transformer during specific
month.
Basically a load survey is done to find maximum metered demand and
total energy in kWh of all consumers connected to the transformer.
(3) Allocation by Application of Diversity Factor
 When diversity factors are available maximum diversity factor can be
Found using following equation.
Maximu non  coincident demand
Maximum diversified demand 
DF
(4) Allocation by Metered Feeder Maximum Demand
 This requires least amount of data
 Most feeders will have metering in the substation that will give either the
total three-phase max. diversified demand or kVA demand or max. current
per phase during a month.
 Allocation factor is calculated as follows.

Metered demand
Allocation factor 
kVAtotal
Where kVAtotal = sum of kVA rating of all transfomers

Then transformer load is given by

Transformer demand  AF * kVAtransformer

Ex: Assume that metered demand of above example is 92.9 kW. Allocate this
According the kVA rating of the three transformers.
Feeder Voltage Drop Calculation

 A distribution feeder provides service to unbalanced three phases, two

phase and single-phase line segments.
 This combination leads to three phase line currents and line voltages
being unbalanced.
 In order to analysis these conditions as precisely as possible, it will be
necessary to model all three phases of the feeder accurately.
 However many times only an approximate answers is needed.
 When this is the case, some approximate methods of modeling and
analysis can be employed.
 Thus all of the approximate methods of modeling and analysis will
assume perfectly balanced systems.
 It will be assumed that all loads are balanced three-phase and perfectly
transposed.
 With these assumptions, a single – line to neutral equivalent circuit as
given below for the feeder will be used.
Feeder Voltage Drop Calculation…
R X
+
+
VS VL Load

-
-
Vs

IZ

 
Vl  IX
I IR

V s  V l  ( R  jX ) I V s  (Vl  IR)  jXI Vdrop  V s   V l

V drop ≈ Re (ZI)
Feeder Voltage Drop Calculation…

Ex: Z = 0.2841 + jo.5682 Ω

I = 43.0   25.8 A

Vs = 2400 V,

K Factor method to calculate voltage drop

Another approximate method to calculate voltage drop is using “K” factors.
There are two types of K factors, one for voltage drop and other for
voltage rise.
Kdrop factor
Percentage voltage drop
K drop 
KVA * km
Similarly Krise also defined as

Percentage voltage rise

k rise 
(kVAR ) * (km )
Feeder Voltage Drop Calculation…

A three segment feeder is given below. The Kdrop factor for the line segment is
Kdrop = 0.0005646 Determine the percentage voltage drop from N0 to N3

N0 N1 N2 N3

2.4 km 1.2 km 0.8km

T1 T2 T3

300 KVA 750 KVA 500 KVA

Voltage drops for different load distributions

(a) Uniformly distributed load

 In this case load is uniformly distributed along a line.

 The line could be single phase, two phase or three phase.
 When the loads are uniformly distributed, it is not necessary to model
each load in order to determine the total voltage drop from the source
end to the load end.
 A uniformly distributed feeder is given below.
 Let us take feeder is divided into n segments

dx dx dx dx dx dx dx dx dx

IT

di di di di di di di di
Voltage drops for different load distributions…

Prove that
 IT 2 R 
 ( zl ) I T   ZIT  P loos  3
V  Re   Re 
 2   2 
 3 
Derive a common model that satisfy losses and voltage drop

(b) For Triangular load distribution

 2IT Z 
V  Re 
dx

 3 
w
w1

 8R 2 
Ploss  3 I T 
x
 15 
l
Voltage drops for different load distributions…
(b) For Trapezoidal Load Distribution
dx

w1
w2

 ZIT ( w1  2w2 )   2 8w22  9w1w2  3w12 

V    Ploss  3 RIT  
  15( w1  w2 )
2
 3( w1 w 2 )   