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Great Art on the Molecular Scale. Any sample of matter has components, which in turn have smaller
components, and so on down to the subatomic scale. This magnificent ancient Roman statue of a discus
thrower is composed largely of marble, which consists of calcium and carbonate ions attracted to each other
in a regular array. Each carbonate ion consists of carbon (black) and oxygen (red) atoms bonded to each
other. In this chapter, you’ll learn what matter is made of.

The Components of Matter

2.1 Elements, Compounds, and 2.5 The Atomic Theory Today 2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and
Mixtures: An Atomic Overview Structure of the Atom Masses
2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Types of Chemical Formulas
Atomic View of Matter Atomic Symbol Learning Names and Formulas
Mass Conservation Isotopes and Atomic Masses Ionic Compounds
Definite Composition Reassessing the Atomic Theory Binary Covalent Compounds
Multiple Proportions 2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Organic Compounds
2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory Periodic Table Molecular Masses
Postulates of the Theory 2.7 Compounds: Introduction to 2.9 Mixtures: Classification and
Explanation of Mass Laws Bonding Separation
2.4 The Observations That Led to the Formation of Ionic Compounds
Nuclear Atom Model Formation of Covalent Compounds
Discovery of the Electron Elements of Life
Discovery of the Nucleus
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I
t may seem surprising, but questioning what things are made of is as common Concepts & Skills to Review
today as it was among the philosophers of ancient Greece, even though we before you study this chapter
approach the question very differently. They believed everything was made of one
or, at most, a few elemental substances (elements). Some believed the elemental sub- • physical and chemical change
stance was water because rivers and oceans extend everywhere. Others thought it was (Section 1.1)
air, which was “thinned” into fire or “thickened” into clouds, rain, and rock. Still oth- • states of matter (Section 1.1)
• attraction and repulsion between
ers believed there were four elements—fire, air, water, and earth—whose properties charged particles (Section 1.1)
accounted for hotness, wetness, sweetness, and all other characteristics of things. • meaning of a scientific model
Democritus (c. 460–370 BC), the father of atomism, took a different approach. (Section 1.3)
He focused on the ultimate components of all substances, and his reasoning went • SI units and conversion factors
something like this: if you cut a piece of, say, copper smaller and smaller, you (Section 1.5)
must eventually reach a particle of copper so small that it can no longer be cut. • significant figures in calculations
Therefore, matter is ultimately composed of indivisible particles, with nothing (Section 1.6)
between them but empty space. He called the particles atoms (Greek atomos,
“uncuttable”) and proclaimed: “According to convention, there is a sweet and a
bitter, a hot and a cold, and according to convention, there is order. In truth, there
are atoms and a void.” However, Aristotle (384–322 BC), who elaborated the idea
of four elements, held that it was impossible for “nothing” to exist, and his influ-
ence was so great that the concept of atoms was suppressed for 2000 years.
Finally, in the 17th century, the great English scientist Robert Boyle argued
that an element is composed of “simple Bodies, not made of any other Bodies,
of which all mixed Bodies are compounded, and into which they are ultimately
resolved,” a description that is remarkably similar to today’s idea of an element,
in which the “simple Bodies” are atoms. Boyle’s hypothesis began the wonder-
ful process of discovery, debate, and rediscovery that marks scientific inquiry, as
exemplified by Lavoisier’s work. Further studies in the 18th century gave rise to
laws concerning the relative masses of substances that react with each other. Then,
at the beginning of the 19th century, John Dalton proposed an atomic model that
explained these mass laws and soon led to rapid progress in chemistry. By that
century’s close, however, further observation exposed the need to revise Dalton’s
model. A burst of creativity in the early 20th century gave rise to a picture of the
atom with a complex internal structure, which led to our current model.
IN THIS CHAPTER . . . We compare the properties and composition of the three
types of matter—elements, compounds, and mixtures—on the macroscopic and
atomic scales. We examine the mass laws and Dalton’s theory to explain them and
then cover key experiments that led to our current model of the atom. Atomic
structure is described, and then we see how elements are organized and classi-
fied in the periodic table. We discuss the two ways elements combine to form
compounds, and learn how to derive compound names, formulas, and masses.
Finally, we see how mixtures are classified and separated.

2.1 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, AND MIXTURES:

AN ATOMIC OVERVIEW
Matter can be classified into three types based on its composition—elements, com-
pounds, and mixtures. An element is the simplest type of matter with unique physical
and chemical properties. An element consists of only one kind of atom. Therefore, it
cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by any physical or chemical
methods. An element is one kind of substance, matter whose composition is fixed.
Each element has a name, such as silicon, oxygen, or copper. A sample of silicon
contains only silicon atoms. A key point to remember is that the macroscopic prop-
erties of a piece of silicon, such as color, density, and combustibility, are different
from those of a piece of copper because silicon atoms are different from copper atoms;
in other words, each element is unique because the properties of its atoms are unique.
41
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42 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

A Atoms of an element B Molecules of an element C Molecules of a compound D Mixture of two elements

and a compound

Figure 2.1 Elements, compounds, and

mixtures on the atomic scale. A, Most Most elements exist in nature as populations of atoms. Figure 2.1A shows
elements consist of a large collection of
identical atoms. B, Some elements occur
atoms of a gaseous element such as neon. However, several elements occur nat-
as molecules. C, A molecule of a com- urally as molecules: a molecule is an independent structure consisting of two or
pound consists of characteristic numbers more atoms chemically bound together (Figure 2.1B). Elemental oxygen, for
of atoms of two or more elements chemi- example, occurs in air as diatomic (two-atom) molecules.
cally bound together. D, A mixture con- A compound is a type of matter composed of two or more different elements
tains the individual units of two or more
elements and/or compounds that are
that are chemically bound together. Be sure you understand that the elements in
physically intermingled. The samples a compound are not just mixed together; rather, their atoms have joined chemi-
shown here are gases, but elements, cally (Figure 2.1C). Ammonia, water, and carbon dioxide are some common com-
compounds, and mixtures occur as pounds. One defining feature of a compound is that the elements are present in
liquids and solids also. fixed parts by mass (fixed mass ratio). Because of this fixed composition, a com-
Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center, pound is also considered a substance. Any sample of the compound has the same
Active Art Library fixed parts by mass because each of its molecules consists of fixed numbers of
atoms of the component elements. For example, any sample of ammonia is 14
parts nitrogen by mass plus 3 parts hydrogen by mass. Since 1 nitrogen atom has
14 times the mass of 1 hydrogen atom, a molecule of ammonia must consist of
1 nitrogen atom for every 3 hydrogen atoms:
Ammonia is 14 parts N and 3 parts H by mass.
1 N atom has 14 times the mass of 1 H atom.
Therefore, ammonia has 1 N atom for every 3 H atoms.
Another defining feature of a compound is that its properties are different
from those of its component elements. Table 2.1 shows a striking example. Soft,
silvery sodium metal and yellow-green, poisonous chlorine gas have very differ-
ent properties from the compound they form—white, crystalline sodium chloride,
or common table salt! Unlike an element, a compound can be broken down into
simpler substances—its component elements. For example, an electric current
breaks down molten sodium chloride into metallic sodium and chlorine gas. Note
that this breakdown is a chemical change, not a physical one.
Figure 2.1D depicts a mixture, a group of two or more substances (elements
and/or compounds) that are physically intermingled. In contrast to a compound,
ARIS Presentation Center, Tables Library

Table 2.1 Some Properties of Sodium, Chlorine, and Sodium Chloride

Property Sodium  Chlorine ±£ Sodium Chloride
Melting point 97.8°C 101°C 801°C
Boiling point 881.4°C 34°C 1413°C
Color Silvery Yellow-green Colorless (white)
Density 0.97 g/cm3 0.0032 g/cm3 2.16 g/cm3
Behavior in water Reacts Dissolves slightly Dissolves freely
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2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview 43

the components of a mixture can vary in their parts by mass. Because its com-
position is not fixed, a mixture is not a substance. A mixture of the two com-
pounds sodium chloride and water, for example, can have many different parts
by mass of salt to water. Because the components are physically mixed, not chem-
ically combined, a mixture at the atomic scale is merely a group of the individ-
ual units that make up its component elements and/or compounds. Therefore, a
mixture retains many of the properties of its components. Saltwater, for instance,
is colorless like water and tastes salty like sodium chloride. Unlike compounds,
mixtures can be separated into their components by physical changes; chemical
changes are not needed. For example, the water in saltwater can be boiled off, a
physical process that leaves behind the solid sodium chloride. The following sam-
ple problem will help differentiate these types of matter.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.1 Distinguishing Elements, Compounds, ARIS Presentation Center, Worked
Examples Library
and Mixtures at the Atomic Scale
PROBLEM The scenes below represent an atomic-scale view of three samples of matter:
(a) (b) (c)

Describe each sample as an element, compound, or mixture.

PLAN From depictions of the samples, we have to determine the type of matter by exam-
ining the component particles. If a sample contains only one type of particle, it is either
an element or a compound; if it contains more than one type, it is a mixture. Particles of
an element have only one kind of atom (one color), and particles of a compound have two
or more kinds of atoms.
SOLUTION (a) This sample is a mixture: there are three different types of particles, two
types contain only one kind of atom, either green or purple, so they are elements, and
the third type contains two red atoms for every one yellow, so it is a compound. (b) This
sample is an element: it consists of only blue atoms, (c) This sample is a compound: it
consists of molecules that each have two black and six blue atoms.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.1 Describe the following reaction in terms of elements,
compounds, and mixtures.

Section Summary
All matter exists as either elements, compounds, or mixtures. • Elements and com-
pounds are referred to as substances because their compositions are fixed. An ele-
ment consists of only one type of atom. A compound contains two or more elements
in chemical combination and exhibits different properties from its component ele-
ments. The elements of a compound occur in fixed parts by mass because each unit
of the compound has fixed numbers of each type of atom. • A mixture consists of
two or more substances mixed together, not chemically combined. The components
retain their individual properties and can be present in any proportion.
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44 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

Literature Clark, Roy W. “Why Do Chemists

Weigh Things in Grams Instead of Gamus?” Chem.
2.2 THE OBSERVATIONS THAT LED TO AN ATOMIC
Educator 7 2002, 4, 192–194. VIEW OF MATTER
Any model of the composition of matter had to explain two extremely important
chemical observations that were well established by the end of the 18th century:
the law of mass conservation and the law of definite (or constant) composition.
As you’ll see, John Dalton’s atomic theory explained these laws and another
observation now known as the law of multiple proportions.

Immeasurable Changes in Mass Mass Conservation

Based on the work of Albert Einstein The most fundamental chemical observation of the 18th century was the law of
(1879–1955), we now know that some mass conservation: the total mass of substances does not change during a chem-
mass does change into energy during a
ical reaction. The number of substances may change and, by definition, their prop-
chemical reaction. But the amount is too
small to measure, even by the best mod-
erties must, but the total amount of matter remains constant. Lavoisier had first
ern balance. For example, when 100 g of stated this law on the basis of his combustion experiments. Figure 2.2 illustrates
carbon burns in oxygen, carbon dioxide mass conservation in a reaction that occurs in water.
is formed, and only 0.000000036 g Even in a complex biochemical change, such as the metabolism of the sugar
(3.6108 g) of mass is converted to en- glucose, which involves many reactions, mass is conserved:
ergy. The energy yields of chemical reac- 180 g glucose  192 g oxygen gas ±£ 264 g carbon dioxide  108 g water
tions are relatively so small that, for all
372 g material before change ±£ 372 g material after change
practical purposes, mass is conserved. As
you’ll see later, however, energy changes Mass conservation means that, based on all chemical experience, matter cannot
in nuclear reactions are so large that mass be created or destroyed. (As you’ll see later, however, mass does change in
changes are measured easily. nuclear reactions.)

Definite Composition
Another fundamental chemical observation is summarized as the law of definite
(or constant) composition: no matter what its source, a particular compound is
composed of the same elements in the same parts (fractions) by mass. The frac-
tion by mass (mass fraction) is that part of the compound’s mass that each ele-
ment contributes. It is obtained by dividing the mass of each element by the total
ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library mass of compound. The percent by mass (mass percent, mass %) is the frac-
tion by mass expressed as a percentage.
ARIS Presentation Center, Photo Library Let’s see what these ideas mean in
1.0 g 1.0 g 1.0 g
Figure 2.2 The law of mass conserva- terms of a box of marbles (right). The box
2.0 g 2.0 g
tion: mass remains constant during a contains three types of marbles: yellow
3.0 g 3.0 g 3.0 g
chemical reaction. The total mass of marbles weigh 1.0 g each, purple marbles
lead nitrate solution and sodium chro- 2.0 g each, and red marbles 3.0 g each.
16.0 g marbles
mate solution before they react (A) is the Each type makes up a fraction of the total
same as the total mass after they have mass of marbles, 16.0 g. The mass fraction
reacted (B) to form lead chromate (yellow
solid) and sodium nitrate solution.

BEFORE REACTION Solid lead AFTER REACTION

chromate in
Lead nitrate Sodium sodium nitrate
solution chromate solution
solution

A B
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2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter 45

of the yellow marbles is their number times their mass divided by the total mass:
(3  1.0 g)/16.0 g  0.19. The mass percent (parts per 100 parts) of the yellow
marbles is 0.19  100  19% by mass. The purple marbles have a mass frac-
tion of 0.25 and are 25% of the total by mass, and the red marbles have a mass
fraction of 0.56 and are 56% by mass. Similarly, in a compound, each element
has a fixed mass fraction (and mass percent).
Consider calcium carbonate, the major compound in marble. It is composed
of three elements—calcium, carbon, and oxygen—and each is present in a fixed
fraction (or percent) by mass. The following results are obtained for the elemen-
tal mass composition of 20.0 g of calcium carbonate (for example, 8.0 g of cal-
CALCIUM CARBONATE
cium/20.0 g  0.40 parts of calcium):
40 mass % calcium
Analysis by Mass Mass Fraction Percent by Mass 12 mass % carbon
(grams/20.0 g) (parts/1.00 part) (parts/100 parts) 48 mass % oxygen

8.0 g calcium 0.40 calcium 40% calcium

2.4 g carbon 0.12 carbon 12% carbon
9.6 g oxygen 0.48 oxygen 48% oxygen
20.0 g 1.00 part by mass 100% by mass
As you can see, the sum of the mass fractions (or mass percents) equals 1.00 part
(or 100%) by mass. The law of definite composition tells us that pure samples of
calcium carbonate, no matter where they come from, always contain these ele-
ments in the same percents by mass (Figure 2.3).
Because a given element always constitutes the same mass fraction of a given
compound, we can use that mass fraction to find the actual mass of the element Figure 2.3 The law of definite compo-
in any sample of the compound: sition. Calcium carbonate is found
part by mass of element naturally in many forms, including marble
Mass of element  mass of compound  (top), coral (bottom), chalk, and seashells.
one part by mass of compound
The mass percents of its component
Or, more simply, because mass analysis tells us the parts by mass, we can use that elements do not change regardless of
ratio directly with any mass unit and skip the need to find the mass fraction first: the compound’s source.

Mass of element in sample ARIS Presentation Center, Photo Library

mass of element in compound

 mass of compound in sample  (2.1)
mass of compound

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.2 Calculating the Mass of an Element ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples
Library
in a Compound
PROBLEM Pitchblende is the most commercially important compound of uranium. Analy-
sis shows that 84.2 g of pitchblende contains 71.4 g of uranium, with oxygen as the only
other element. How many grams of uranium can be obtained from 102 kg of pitchblende?
PLAN We have to find the mass of uranium in a known mass of pitchblende, given the mass
of uranium in a different mass of pitchblende. The mass ratio of uranium/pitchblende is Mass (kg) of pitchblende
the same for any sample of pitchblende. Therefore, as shown by Equation 2.1, we multi-
ply the mass (in kg) of pitchblende by the ratio of uranium to pitchblende that we con- multiply by mass ratio of uranium
struct from the mass analysis. This gives the mass (in kg) of uranium, and we just convert to pitchblende from analysis
kilograms to grams.
SOLUTION Finding the mass (kg) of uranium in 102 kg of pitchblende: Mass (kg) of uranium
mass (kg) of uranium in pitchblende
Mass (kg) of uranium  mass (kg) of pitchblende  1 kg ⴝ 1000 g
mass (kg) of pitchblende
71.4 kg uranium
Mass (kg) of uranium  102 kg pitchblende   86.5 kg uranium
84.2 kg pitchblende Mass (g) of uranium
Converting the mass of uranium from kg to g:
1000 g
Mass (g) of uranium  86.5 kg uranium   8.65104 g uranium
1 kg
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46 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

CHECK The analysis showed that most of the mass of pitchblende is due to uranium, so
the large mass of uranium makes sense. Rounding off to check the math gives:
70
100 kg pitchblende   82 kg uranium
85
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.2 How many metric tons (t) of oxygen are combined in
a sample of pitchblende that contains 2.3 t of uranium? (Hint: Remember that oxygen is
the only other element present.)

Multiple Proportions
Demo Shakhashiri, Bassam Z. “Reaction of Iron Dalton described a phenomenon that occurs when two elements form more than
and Sulfur,” Chemical Demonstrations, A Handbook for
Teachers of Chemistry, Vol. 1 (The University of
one compound. His observation is now called the law of multiple proportions:
Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1985): 55. if elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different masses of B that
combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole num-
bers. Consider two compounds that form from carbon and oxygen; for now, let’s
call them carbon oxides I and II. They have very different properties. For exam-
ple, measured at the same temperature and pressure, the density of carbon oxide I
is 1.25 g/L, whereas that of II is 1.98 g/L. Moreover, I is poisonous and flam-
mable, but II is not. Analysis shows that their compositions by mass are
Carbon oxide I: 57.1 mass % oxygen and 42.9 mass % carbon
Carbon oxide II: 72.7 mass % oxygen and 27.3 mass % carbon
To see the phenomenon of multiple proportions, we use the mass percents of
oxygen and of carbon in each compound to find the masses of these elements in
a given mass, for example, 100 g, of each compound. Then we divide the mass
of oxygen by the mass of carbon in each compound to obtain the mass of oxy-
gen that combines with a fixed mass of carbon:
Carbon Oxide I Carbon Oxide II

g oxygen/100 g compound 57.1 72.7

g carbon/100 g compound 42.9 27.3
57.1 72.7
g oxygen/g carbon  1.33  2.66
42.9 27.3
If we then divide the grams of oxygen per gram of carbon in II by that in I, we
obtain a ratio of small whole numbers:
2.66 g oxygen/g carbon in II 2

1.33 g oxygen/g carbon in I 1
The law of multiple proportions tells us that in two compounds of the same
elements, the mass fraction of one element relative to the other element changes
in increments based on ratios of small whole numbers. In this case, the ratio is
2:1—for a given mass of carbon, II contains 2 times as much oxygen as I, not
1.583 times, 1.716 times, or any other intermediate amount. As you’ll see next,
Dalton’s theory allows us to explain the composition of carbon oxides I and II on
the atomic scale.

Section Summary
Three fundamental observations are known as the mass laws. The law of mass con-
servation states that the total mass remains constant during a chemical reaction. •
The law of definite composition states that any sample of a given compound has the
same elements present in the same parts by mass. • The law of multiple proportions
states that, in different compounds of the same elements, the masses of one element
that combine with a fixed mass of the other can be expressed as a ratio of small
whole numbers.
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2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 47

2.3 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

With 200 years of hindsight, it may be easy to see how the mass laws could be
explained by an atomic model—matter existing in indestructible units, each with
a particular mass—but it was a major breakthrough in 1808 when John Dalton
(1766–1844) presented his atomic theory of matter in A New System of Chemical
Philosophy.

Postulates of the Atomic Theory

Dalton expressed his theory in a series of postulates. Like most great thinkers,
Dalton incorporated the ideas of others into his own to create the new theory. As
we go through the postulates, which are presented here in modern terms, let’s see
which were original and which came from others. (Later, we can examine the key
Dalton’s Revival of Atomism
differences between Dalton’s postulates and our present understanding.)
Although John Dalton, the son of a poor
1. All matter consists of atoms, tiny indivisible particles of an element that can- weaver, had no formal education, he es-
not be created or destroyed. (Derives from the “eternal, indestructible atoms” tablished one of the most powerful con-
proposed by Democritus more than 2000 years earlier and conforms to mass cepts in science. Dalton began teaching
conservation as stated by Lavoisier.) science at 12 years of age, and later stud-
2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another element. In ied color blindness, a personal affliction
still known as daltonism. In 1787, he
chemical reactions, the atoms of the original substances recombine to form dif-
began his life’s work in meteorology,
ferent substances. (Rejects the alchemical belief in the magical transmutation recording daily weather data until his
of elements.) death 57 years later. His studies on hu-
3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties and are differ- midity and dew point led to a key discov-
ent from atoms of any other element. (Contains Dalton’s major new ideas: ery about the behavior of gases (Section
unique mass and properties for all the atoms of a given element.) 5.4) and eventually to his atomic theory.
4. Compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific ratio of atoms In 1803, he stated, “I am nearly persuaded
of different elements. (Follows directly from the law of definite composition.) that [the mixing of gases and their solubil-
ity in water] depends upon the mass and
number of the ultimate particles. . . . An
How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws enquiry into the relative masses of [these]
Let’s see how Dalton’s postulates explain the mass laws: particles of bodies is a subject . . . I have
lately been prosecuting . . . with remark-
• Mass conservation. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed (postulate 1) or con- able success.” The atomic theory was
verted into other types of atoms (postulate 2). Since each type of atom has a published 5 years later.
fixed mass (postulate 3), a chemical reaction, in which atoms are just com-
ARIS Presentation Center, Photo Library
bined differently with each other, cannot possibly result in a mass change.
• Definite composition. A compound is a combination of a specific ratio of dif-
ferent atoms (postulate 4), each of which has a particular mass (postulate 3).
Thus, each element in a compound constitutes a fixed fraction of the total mass.
• Multiple proportions. Atoms of an element have the same mass (postulate 3)
and are indivisible (postulate 1). The masses of element B that combine with
a fixed mass of element A give a small, whole-number ratio because different
numbers of B atoms combine with each A atom in different compounds.
The simplest arrangement consistent with the mass data for carbon oxides I
and II in our earlier example is that one atom of oxygen combines with one atom
of carbon in compound I (carbon monoxide) and that two atoms of oxygen com-
bine with one atom of carbon in compound II (carbon dioxide):
ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library
C O O C O

Carbon oxide I Carbon oxide II

(carbon monoxide) (carbon dioxide)

Let’s work through a sample problem that reviews the mass laws.
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48 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.3 Visualizing the Mass Laws
Library
PROBLEM The scenes below represent an atomic-scale view of a chemical reaction:

Which of the mass laws—mass conservation, definite composition, or multiple proportions—

is (are) illustrated?
PLAN From the depictions, we note the number, color, and combinations of atoms (spheres)
to see which mass laws pertain. If the numbers of each atom are the same before and after
the reaction, the total mass did not change (mass conservation). If a compound forms that
always has the same atom ratio, the elements are present in fixed parts by mass (definite
composition). When the same elements form different compounds and the ratio of the
atoms of one element that combine with one atom of the other element is a small whole
number, the ratio of their masses is a small whole number as well (multiple proportions).
SOLUTION There are seven purple and nine green atoms in each circle, so mass is conserved.
The compound formed has one purple and two green atoms, so it has definite composition.
Only one compound forms, so the law of multiple proportions does not pertain.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.3 Which sample(s) best display(s) the fact that compounds
of bromine (orange) and fluorine (yellow) exhibit the law of multiple proportions? Explain.

A B C

Section Summary
Dalton’s atomic theory explained the mass laws by proposing that all matter consists
of indivisible, unchangeable atoms of fixed, unique mass. • Mass is conserved dur-
Atoms? Humbug! Rarely does a major ing a reaction because atoms form new combinations. • Each compound has a fixed
new concept receive unanimous accep- mass fraction of each of its elements because it is composed of a fixed number of
tance. Despite the atomic theory’s impact, each type of atom. • Different compounds of the same elements exhibit multiple pro-
several major scientists denied the exis- portions because they each consist of whole atoms.
tence of atoms for another century. In
1877, Adolf Kolbe, an eminent organic
chemist, said, “[Dalton’s atoms are] . . . no
2.4 THE OBSERVATIONS THAT LED TO THE NUCLEAR
more than stupid hallucinations . . . mere ATOM MODEL
table-tapping and supernatural explana-
tions.” The influential physicist Ernst
After publication of the atomic theory, investigators tried to determine the masses
Mach believed that scientists should look of atoms from the mass fractions of elements in compounds. Because an indi-
at facts, not hypothetical entities such as vidual atom is so small, the mass of the atoms of one element was determined
atoms. It was not until 1908 that the fa- relative to the mass of the atoms of another element, based on a mass standard.
mous chemist and outspoken opponent of Dalton’s model was crucial because it originated the idea that masses of reacting
atomism Wilhelm Ostwald wrote, “I am elements could be explained in terms of atoms. However, the model did not
now convinced [by recent] experimental explain why atoms bond as they do: for example, why do two, and not three,
evidence of the discrete or grained nature hydrogen atoms bond with one oxygen atom in water? Also, Dalton’s “billiard
of matter, which the atomic hypothesis ball” atom did not account for the charged particles observed in later experiments.
sought in vain for hundreds and thousands Clearly, a more complex atomic model was needed.
of years.” He was referring to the discov-
Basic research into the nature of electricity eventually led to the discovery of
ery of the electron.
electrons, negatively charged particles that are part of all atoms. Soon thereafter,
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2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model 49

other experiments revealed that the atom has a nucleus—a tiny, central core of
mass and positive charge. In this section, we examine some key experiments that
led to our current model of the atom.

Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties

Nineteenth-century investigators of electricity knew that matter and electric
charge were somehow related. When amber is rubbed with fur, or glass with silk,
positive and negative charges form—the same charges that make your hair crackle
and cling to your comb on a dry day. They also knew that an electric current
could decompose certain compounds into their elements.
What they did not know, however, was what an electric current itself might The Familiar Glow of Colliding Parti-
consist of. Some investigators tried passing current from a high-voltage source cles The electric and magnetic properties
of charged particles that collide with gas
through nearly evacuated glass tubes fitted with metal electrodes that were sealed
particles or hit a phosphor-coated screen
in place and connected to an external source of electricity. When the power was have familiar applications. A “neon” sign
turned on, a “ray” could be seen striking the phosphor-coated end of the tube and glows because electrons collide with the
emitting a glowing spot of light. The rays were called cathode rays because they gas particles in the tube, causing them to
originated at the negative electrode (cathode) and moved to the positive electrode give off light. An aurora display occurs
(anode). Cathode rays typically travel in a straight line, but in a magnetic field when Earth’s magnetic field bends streams
the path is bent, indicating that the particles are charged, and in an electric field of charged particles coming from the Sun,
the path bends toward the positive plate. The ray is identical no matter what metal which then collide with gases in the at-
is used as the cathode (Figure 2.4). It was concluded that cathode rays consist of mosphere. In a television tube or computer
negatively charged particles found in all matter. The rays appear when these par- monitor, the cathode ray passes back and
ticles collide with the few remaining gas molecules in the evacuated tube. forth over the coated screen, creating a
pattern that the eye sees as a picture.
Cathode ray particles were later named electrons.
ARIS Presentation Center, Photo Library

Figure 2.4 Experiments to deter-

Phosphor-coated end of tube mine the properties of cathode rays. Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center,
Art Library
A cathode ray forms when high volt-
1 age is applied to a partially evacuated
Cathode ray Animation: Cathode Ray Tube
tube. The ray passes through a hole in ARIS Presentation Center
the anode and hits the coated end of Animations Center, Chapter 2
– the tube to produce a glow.
N
Anode OBSERVATION CONCLUSION
+ 2
S 1. Ray bends in Consists of
3
magnetic field charged
– + particles
Evacuated tube

Cathode 2. Ray bends toward Consists of

positive plate negative
in electric field particles
Positive plate
3. Ray is identical Particles found
Magnet
for any cathode in all matter

In 1897, the British physicist J. J. Thomson (1856–1940) used magnetic and

electric fields to measure the ratio of the cathode ray particle’s mass to its charge.
By comparing this value with the mass/charge ratio for the lightest charged par-
ticle in solution, Thomson estimated that the cathode ray particle weighed less
1
than 1000 as much as hydrogen, the lightest atom! He was shocked because this
implied that, contrary to Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms are divisible into even
smaller particles. Thomson concluded, “We have in the cathode rays matter in a
new state, . . . in which the subdivision of matter is carried much further . . . ;
this matter being the substance from which the chemical elements are built up.”
Fellow scientists reacted with disbelief, and some even thought he was joking.
In 1909, the American physicist Robert Millikan (1868–1953) measured the
charge of the electron. He did so by observing the movement of tiny droplets of
the “highest grade clock oil” in an apparatus that contained electrically charged
siL48593_ch02_040-088 8:7:07 04:44pm Page 50 nishant-13 ve403:MHQY042:siL5ch02:

50 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

Figure 2.5 Millikan’s oil-drop 2 Oil droplets fall through 1 Fine mist of oil sprayed into apparatus
experiment for measuring an hole in positively charged plate
electron’s charge. The motion of a given
oil droplet depends on the variation in
electric field and the total charge on the
droplet, which depends in turn on the
number of attached electrons. Millikan 3 X-rays knock
reasoned that the total charge must be electrons from
some whole-number multiple of the surrounding air,
which stick to droplets
charge of the electron.

Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center, 4 Electrically charged

Active Art Library plates influence
droplet's motion +

Literature Pearson, Earl F. “Millikan: Good to the

Last (Oil) Drop,” J. Chem. Educ. 2006, 83, 1312A.

– X-ray
Literature Eckey, Doris. “A Millikan Oil Drop
Analogy,” J. Chem. Educ. 1996, 73, 237. source

Animation: Millikan Oil Drop

ARIS Presentation Center 5 Observer times droplet's motion and controls electric field
Chapter 2

plates and an x-ray source (Figure 2.5). Here is a description of the basis of the
experiment: X-rays knocked electrons from gas molecules in the air, and as an
oil droplet fell through a hole in the positive (upper) plate, the electrons stuck to
the drop, giving it a negative charge. With the electric field off, Millikan mea-
sured the mass of the droplet from its rate of fall. By turning on the field and
varying its strength, he could make the drop fall more slowly, rise, or pause sus-
pended. From these data, Millikan calculated the total charge of the droplet.
After studying many droplets, Millikan calculated that the various charges of
the droplets were always some whole-number multiple of a minimum charge. He
reasoned that different oil droplets picked up different numbers of electrons, so
this minimum charge must be that of the electron itself. The value that he calcu-
lated a century ago was within 1% of the modern value of the electron’s charge,
1.6021019 C (C stands for coulomb, the SI unit of charge). Using the elec-
tron’s mass/charge ratio from work by Thomson and others and this value for the
electron’s charge, let’s calculate the electron’s extremely small mass the way Mil-
likan did:

 charge  a5.6861012 b(1.6021019 C)

mass kg
Mass of electron 
charge C
 9.1091031 kg  9.1091028 g

Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus

Clearly, the properties of the electron posed problems about the inner structure of
atoms. If everyday matter is electrically neutral, the atoms that make it up must
be neutral also. But if atoms contain negatively charged electrons, what positive
charges balance them? And if an electron has such an incredibly tiny mass, what
accounts for an atom’s much larger mass? To address these issues, Thomson pro-
posed a model of a spherical atom composed of diffuse, positively charged mat-
ter, in which electrons were embedded like “raisins in a plum pudding.”
Near the turn of the 20th century, French scientists discovered radioactivity,
the emission of particles and/or radiation from atoms of certain elements. Just a
few years later, in 1910, the New Zealand–born physicist Ernest Rutherford
(1871–1937) used one type of radioactive particle in a series of experiments that
solved this dilemma of atomic structure.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 8:7:07 07:14pm Page 51 nishant-13 ve403:MHQY042:siL5ch02:

2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model 51

A Hypothesis: Expected result based B Experiment C Actual result

on "plum pudding" models

Incoming Incoming
α particles 1 Radioactive sample α particles
emits beam of
α particles

2 Beam of α particles
strikes gold foil
Almost no Major Minor
deflection deflection deflection

Cross section of gold foil Cross section of gold foil

composed of "plum pudding" atoms composed of atoms that each have
Gold foil a tiny, massive, positive nucleus

Major deflections 5
of α particles are
seen very rarely. 3 Flashes of light produced when α particles
strike zinc sulfide screen show that
Minor deflections 4 most α particles pass through foil with
of α particles are little or no deflection.
seen occasionally.

Figure 2.6 Rutherford’s -scattering

experiment and discovery of the atomic
Figure 2.6 is a three-part representation of Rutherford’s experiment. Tiny, nucleus. A, HYPOTHESIS: Atoms consist
of electrons embedded in diffuse, posi-
dense, positively charged alpha () particles emitted from radium were aimed, tively charged matter, so the speeding 
like minute projectiles, at thin gold foil. The figure illustrates (A) the “plum particles should pass through the gold foil
pudding” hypothesis, (B) the apparatus used to measure the deflection (scatter- with, at most, minor deflections.
ing) of the  particles from the light flashes created when the particles struck a B, EXPERIMENT:  Particles emit a flash
of light when they pass through the gold
circular, coated screen, and (C) the actual result. atoms and hit a phosphor-coated screen.
With Thomson’s model in mind, Rutherford expected only minor, if any, C, RESULTS: Occasional minor deflec-
deflections of the  particles because they should act as tiny, dense, positively tions and very infrequent major deflec-
charged “bullets” and go right through the gold atoms. According to the model, tions are seen. This means very high
one of the embedded electrons could not deflect an  particle any more than a mass and positive charge are concen-
trated in a small region within the atom,
Ping-Pong ball could deflect a speeding baseball. Initial results confirmed this, the nucleus.
but soon the unexpected happened. As Rutherford recalled: “Then I remember
ARIS Presentation Center, Active Art Library
two or three days later Geiger [one of his coworkers] coming to me in great
excitement and saying, ‘We have been able to get some of the  particles com- Animation: Rutherford’s Experiment
ing backwards . . .’ It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened ARIS Presentation Center
Chapter 2
to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a
piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you.”
The data showed that very few  particles were deflected at all, and that only
1 in 20,000 was deflected by more than 90 (“coming backwards”). It seemed that
these few  particles were being repelled by something small, dense, and posi-
tive within the gold atoms. From the mass, charge, and velocity of the  parti-
cles, the frequency of these large-angle deflections, and the properties of electrons,
Rutherford calculated that an atom is mostly space occupied by electrons, but in
the center of that space is a tiny region, which he called the nucleus, that con-
tains all the positive charge and essentially all the mass of the atom. He proposed
that positive particles lay within the nucleus and called them protons, and then
he calculated the magnitude of the nuclear charge with remarkable accuracy.
Rutherford’s model explained the charged nature of matter, but it could not
account for all the atom’s mass. After more than 20 years, this issue was resolved
when, in 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron, an uncharged dense par-
ticle that also resides in the nucleus.
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52 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

Section Summary
Several major discoveries at the turn of the 20th century led to our current model of
atomic structure. • Cathode rays were shown to consist of negative particles
(electrons) that exist in all matter. J. J. Thomson measured their mass/charge ratio
and concluded that they are much smaller and lighter than atoms. • Robert Millikan
determined the charge of the electron, which he combined with other data to calcu-
late its mass. • Ernest Rutherford proposed that atoms consist of a tiny, massive,
positive nucleus surrounded by electrons.

2.5 THE ATOMIC THEORY TODAY

For over 200 years, scientists have known that all matter consists of atoms, and
they have learned astonishing things about them. Dalton’s tiny indivisible parti-
cles have given way to atoms with “fuzzy,” indistinct boundaries and an elabo-
rate internal architecture of subatomic particles. In this section, we examine our
current model and begin to see how the properties of subatomic particles affect
the properties of atoms. Then we’ll see how Dalton’s theory stands up today.

Structure of the Atom

An atom is an electrically neutral, spherical entity composed of a positively
charged central nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons
(Figure 2.7). The electrons move rapidly within the available atomic volume, held
there by the attraction of the nucleus. The nucleus is incredibly dense: it con-
tributes 99.97% of the atom’s mass but occupies only about 1 quadrillionth of its
volume. (A nucleus the size of a period on this page would weigh about 100 tons,
as much as 50 cars!) An atom’s diameter (1010 m) is about 100,000 times the
diameter of its nucleus (1015 m).
Literature Peake, Barrie M. “The Discovery of An atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons (the only exception is the
the Electron, Proton, and Neutron,” J. Chem. Educ.
1989, 66, 738.
simplest hydrogen nucleus, which is a single proton). The proton (p) has a pos-
itive charge, and the neutron (n0) has no charge; thus, the positive charge of the
nucleus results from its protons. The magnitude of charge possessed by a proton
is equal to that of an electron (e), but the signs of the charges are opposite.
An atom is neutral because the number of protons in the nucleus equals the num-
ber of electrons surrounding the nucleus. Some properties of these three sub-
atomic particles are listed in Table 2.2.

Approximately 10 –10 m Approximately 10 –15 m

Proton, p+
Nucleus Electrons, e– (positive charge)
(negative charge)
Neutron, n0
(no charge)

A Atom B Nucleus

Animation: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays Figure 2.7 General features of the atom. A, A “cloud” of rapidly moving, negatively charged
ARIS Presentation Center electrons occupies virtually all the atomic volume and surrounds the tiny, central nucleus. B, The
Chapter 2
nucleus contains virtually all the mass of the atom and consists of positively charged protons and
uncharged neutrons. If the nucleus were actually the size in the figure (1 cm across), the atom
ARIS Presentation Center, Active Art Library
would be about 1000 m (1 km) across.
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2.5 The Atomic Theory Today 53

Table 2.2 Properties of the Three Key Subatomic Particles

Charge Mass
†
Name (Symbol) Relative Absolute (C)* Relative (amu) Absolute (g) Location in Atom
 19 24
Proton (p ) 1 1.6021810 1.00727 1.6726210 Nucleus
Neutron (n0) 0 0 1.00866 1.674931024 Nucleus
Electron (e) 1 1.602181019 0.00054858 9.109391028 Outside nucleus
*The coulomb (C) is the SI unit of charge.
†
The atomic mass unit (amu) equals 1.660541024 g; discussed later in this section. Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center,
Tables Library

Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol ARIS Presentation Center, Active Art Library
The atomic number (Z ) of an element equals the number of protons in the Mass
nucleus of each of its atoms. All atoms of a particular element have the same number
atomic number, and each element has a different atomic number from that of any (p+ + n0) A
other element. All carbon atoms (Z  6) have 6 protons, all oxygen atoms (Z 
8) have 8 protons, and all uranium atoms (Z  92) have 92 protons. There are
Atomic
number
Z X Atomic
symbol

currently 116 known elements, of which 90 occur in nature; the remaining 26 (p+)
have been synthesized by nuclear scientists.
6e–
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is its
6p+ 12
mass number (A). Each proton and each neutron contributes one unit to the mass 6n0 6 C
number. Thus, a carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus has a
mass number of 12, and a uranium atom with 92 protons and 146 neutrons in its An atom of carbon -12
nucleus has a mass number of 238.
The nuclear mass number and charge are often written with the atomic sym- 8e–

bol (or element symbol). Every element has a symbol based on its English, Latin, 8p+ 16
8n0 8 O
or Greek name, such as C for carbon, O for oxygen, S for sulfur, and Na for
sodium (Latin natrium). The atomic number (Z) is written as a left subscript and An atom of oxygen -16
the mass number (A) as a left superscript to the symbol, so element X would be
A
ZX. Since the mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons, the number of
92e–
neutrons (N) equals the mass number minus the atomic number:
Number of neutrons  mass number  atomic number, or N  A  Z (2.2) 92p+ 235
143n0 92 U
Thus, a chlorine atom, which is symbolized as has A  35, Z  17, and
35
17Cl,
N  35  17  18. Each element has its own atomic number, so we know the
atomic number from the symbol. For example, every carbon atom has 6 protons.
Therefore, instead of writing 126C for carbon with mass number 12, we can write An atom of uranium-235
12
C (spoken “carbon twelve”), with Z  6 understood. Another way to write this
92e–
atom is carbon-12.
92p+
Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements 146n0
238
92 U
All atoms of an element are identical in atomic number but not in mass number.
Isotopes of an element are atoms that have different numbers of neutrons and
therefore different mass numbers. For example, all carbon atoms (Z  6) have An atom of uranium-238
6 protons and 6 electrons, but only 98.89% of naturally occurring carbon atoms
have 6 neutrons in the nucleus (A  12). A small percentage (1.11%) have 7 neu- Figure 2.8 Depicting the atom. Atoms
of carbon-12, oxygen-16, uranium-235,
trons in the nucleus (A  13), and even fewer (less than 0.01%) have 8 (A  and uranium-238 are shown (nuclei not
14). These are carbon’s three naturally occurring isotopes—12C, 13C, and 14C. drawn to scale) with their symbolic repre-
Five other carbon isotopes—9C, 10C, 11C, 15C, and 16C—have been created in the sentations. The sum of the number of
laboratory. Figure 2.8 depicts the atomic number, mass number, and symbol for protons (Z) and the number of neutrons
four atoms, two of which are isotopes of the same element. (N) equals the mass number (A). An atom
is neutral, so the number of protons in the
A key point is that the chemical properties of an element are primarily deter- nucleus equals the number of electrons
mined by the number of electrons, so all isotopes of an element have nearly iden- around the nucleus. The two uranium
tical chemical behavior, even though they have different masses. atoms are isotopes of the element.
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54 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.4 Determining the Number of Subatomic
Library
Particles in the Isotopes of an Element
PROBLEM Silicon (Si) is essential to the computer industry as a major component of semi-
conductor chips. It has three naturally occurring isotopes: 28Si, 29Si, and 30Si. Determine
the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each silicon isotope.
PLAN The mass number (A) of each of the three isotopes is given, so we know the sum of
protons and neutrons. From the elements list on the text’s inside front cover, we find the
atomic number (Z, number of protons), which equals the number of electrons. We obtain
the number of neutrons from Equation 2.2.
SOLUTION From the elements list, the atomic number of silicon is 14. Therefore,
28
Si has 14p  , 14e  , and 14n0 (28  14)
29
Si has 14p  , 14e  , and 15n0 (29  14)
30
Si has 14p  , 14e  , and 16n0 (30  14)

FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.4 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in
11 41 131
(a) 5Q? (b) 20R? (c) 53X? What element symbols do Q, R, and X represent?

The mass of an atom is measured relative to the mass of an atomic standard.

The modern atomic mass standard is the carbon-12 atom. Its mass is defined as
1
exactly 12 atomic mass units. Thus, the atomic mass unit (amu) is 12 the mass
1
of a carbon-12 atom. Based on this standard, the H atom has a mass of
1.008 amu; in other words, a 12C atom has almost 12 times the mass of an 1H
atom. We will continue to use the term atomic mass unit in the text, although the
name of the unit has been changed to the dalton (Da); thus, one 12C atom has a
mass of 12 daltons (12 Da, or 12 amu). The atomic mass unit, which is a unit of
relative mass, has an absolute mass of 1.660541024 g.
Literature Blauch, David N.; Schuh, Merlyn D.; The isotopic makeup of an element is determined by mass spectrometry, a
Carroll, Felix A. “Determination of the Natural
Abundances of Krypton and Xenon Isotopes Using Mass
method for measuring the relative masses and abundances of atomic-scale parti-
Spectrometry: A Demonstration of Isotopes and the cles very precisely (see the Tools of the Laboratory essay). For example, using a
Basis of Atomic Mass,” J. Chem. Educ. 2002, 79, 584.
mass spectrometer, we measure the mass ratio of 28Si to 12C as
Mass of 28Si atom
 2.331411
Mass of 12C standard
From this mass ratio, we find the isotopic mass of the 28Si atom, the mass of the
isotope relative to the mass of the standard carbon-12 isotope:
Isotopic mass of 28Si  measured mass ratio  mass of 12C
 2.331411  12 amu  27.97693 amu
Along with the isotopic mass, the mass spectrometer gives the relative abun-
dance (fraction) of each isotope in a sample of the element. For example, the per-
cent abundance of 28Si is 92.23%. Such measurements provide data for obtaining
Literature Last, Arthur M.; Webb, Michael J. the atomic mass (also called atomic weight) of an element, the average of the
“Using Monetary Analogies to Teach Average Atomic
Mass,” J. Chem. Educ. 1993, 70, 234.
masses of its naturally occurring isotopes weighted according to their abundances.
Each naturally occurring isotope of an element contributes a certain portion
Literature Marshall, James L.; Marshall, Virginia
to the atomic mass. For instance, as just noted, 92.23% of Si atoms are 28Si. Using
R. “Rediscovery of the Elements: Ytterby Gruva (Ytterby this percent abundance as a fraction and multiplying by the isotopic mass of 28Si
Mine),” J. Chem. Educ. 2001, 78, 1343.
gives the portion of the atomic mass of Si contributed by 28Si:
Literature Spindel, William; Ishida, Takanobu.
Portion of Si atomic mass from 28Si  27.97693 amu  0.9223  25.8031 amu
“Isotope Separation,” J. Chem. Educ. 1991, 68, 312. (retaining two additional significant figures)
Similar calculations give the portions contributed by 29Si (28.976495 amu 
0.0467  1.3532 amu) and by 30Si (29.973770 amu  0.0310  0.9292 amu),
and adding the three portions together (rounding to two decimal places at the end)
gives the atomic mass of silicon:
Atomic mass of Si  25.8031 amu  1.3532 amu  0.9292 amu
 28.0855 amu  28.09 amu
siL48593_ch02_040-088 8:7:07 07:13pm Page 55 nishant-13 ve403:MHQY042:siL5ch02:

Tools of the Laboratory

Mass Spectrometry
ass spectrometry, the most powerful technique 1 High-energy electron 20Ne

M for measuring the mass and abundance of

charged particles, emerged from electric and
magnetic deflection studies on particles formed in cath-
collides with
neon atom
in gas sample
e–
10e–
9e –
20Ne with 1+ charge

ode ray experiments. When a high-energy electron col- Source of 10p+ 10p+
e– 10n0
lides with an atom of neon-20, for example, one of the high-energy 10n0
atom’s electrons is knocked away and the resulting par- electrons e –

ticle has one positive charge, Ne (Figure B2.1). Thus,

its mass/charge ratio (m/e) equals the mass divided by 2 Neon electron m/e = 19.992435
is knocked
1. The m/e values are measured to identify the masses away by impact
3 Positively charged neon particle is produced
of different isotopes of an element. that has 10p+ and 10n 0 in nucleus but only 9e –
Figure B2.2, parts A–C, depicts the core of one
Figure B2.1 Formation of a positively charged neon (Ne) particle.
type of mass spectrometer and the data it provides. The
sample is introduced and vaporized (if liquid or solid),
then bombarded by high-energy electrons to form positively Mass spectrometry is also used in structural chemistry and
charged particles. These are attracted toward a series of negatively separations science to measure the mass of virtually any atom,
charged plates with slits in them, and some particles pass through molecule, or molecular fragment. The technique is employed by
into an evacuated tube exposed to a magnetic field. As the particles biochemists determining protein structures (Figure B2.2, part D),
zoom through this region, they are deflected (their paths are bent) materials scientists examining catalyst surfaces, forensic chemists
according to their m/e: the lightest particles are deflected most and analyzing criminal evidence, pharmaceutical chemists designing
the heaviest particles least. At the end of the magnetic region, the new drugs, industrial chemists investigating petroleum compo-
particles strike a detector, which records their relative positions nents, and many others. In fact, John B. Fenn and Koichi Tanaka
and abundances. For very precise work, such as determining iso- shared part of the 2002 Nobel Prize in chemistry for developing
topic masses and abundances, the instrument is calibrated with a methods to study proteins by mass spectrometry.
substance of known amount and mass.

Detector Figure B2.2 The mass

20Ne+
21Ne+ spectrometer and its data.
A, Charged particles are
2 If necessary, heater Lightest particles in sample separated on the basis of their
vaporizes sample m/e values. Ne is the sample
here. B, The data show the
3 Electron beam knocks abundances of three Ne iso-
electrons from atoms Charged particle beam
topes. C, The percent abun-
(see Figure B2.1) 22Ne+
1 Sample dance of each isotope. D, The
enters mass spectrum of a protein
chamber Heaviest particles molecule. Each peak repre-
in sample sents a molecular fragment.

Transparency/ARIS Presentation
Center, Art Library
5 Magnetic field separates particles
Electron source according to their mass/charge ratio

4 Electric field accelerates particles

toward magnetic region Magnet
A 20Ne+
100 (90.5%)
Percent abundance

80

60
Abundance of
Ne+ particles

40
22Ne+
20 21Ne+
(9.2%)
(0.3%)

19 20 21 22 20 21 22
B Mass/charge C Mass/charge D
55
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56 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

Note that atomic mass is an average value, and averages must be interpreted care-
fully. Although the average number of children in an American family in 1985
was 2.4, no family actually had 2.4 children; similarly, no individual silicon atom
has a mass of 28.09 amu. But for most laboratory purposes, we consider a sam-
ple of silicon to consist of atoms with this average mass.

ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.5 Calculating the Atomic Mass of an Element
Library
PROBLEM Silver (Ag; Z  47) has 46 known isotopes, but only two occur naturally, 107Ag
109
and Ag. Given the following mass spectrometric data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag:
Isotope Mass (amu) Abundance (%)
107
Ag 106.90509 51.84
109
Ag 108.90476 48.16
PLAN From the mass and abundance of the two Ag isotopes, we have to find the atomic
Mass (g) of each isotope mass of Ag (weighted average of the isotopic masses). We multiply each isotopic mass by
its fractional abundance to find the portion of the atomic mass contributed by each isotope.
multiply by fractional abundance The sum of the isotopic portions is the atomic mass.
of each isotope SOLUTION Finding the portion of the atomic mass from each isotope:
Portion of atomic mass Portion of atomic mass from 107Ag:  isotopic mass  fractional abundance
from each isotope  106.90509 amu  0.5184  55.42 amu
Portion of atomic mass from 109Ag:  108.90476 amu  0.4816  52.45 amu
add isotopic portions
Finding the atomic mass of silver:
Atomic mass of Ag  55.42 amu  52.45 amu  107.87 amu
Atomic mass
CHECK The individual portions seem right: 100 amu  0.50  50 amu. The portions
should be almost the same because the two isotopic abundances are almost the same. We
rounded each portion to four significant figures because that is the number of significant
Literature Reeves, Perry C.; Pamplin, Kim L. figures in the abundance values. This is the correct atomic mass (to two decimal places),
“A Strategy for Incorporating Hands-On GC-MS into the as shown in the list of elements (inside front cover).
General Chemistry Lecture and Laboratory Courses,”
J. Chem. Educ. 2001, 78, 368. FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.5 Boron (B; Z  5) has two naturally occurring isotopes.
Find the percent abundances of 10B and 11B given the atomic mass of B  10.81 amu, the
isotopic mass of 10B  10.0129 amu, and the isotopic mass of 11B  11.0093 amu.
Demo Ellis, Arthur B.; Adler, Edward A.; Juergens,
Frederick H. “Dramatizing Isotopes: Deuterated Ice Cubes
(Hint: The sum of the fractional abundances is 1. If x  abundance of 10B, then
Sink,” J. Chem. Educ. 1990, 67, 159. 1  x  abundance of 11B.)

A Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory

We began discussing the atomic basis of matter with Dalton’s model, which
proved inaccurate in several respects. What happens to a model whose postulates
are found by later experiment to be incorrect? No model can predict every pos-
sible future observation, but a powerful model evolves and remains useful. Let’s
The Heresy of Radioactive “Transmu- reexamine the atomic theory in light of what we know now:
tation” In 1902, Rutherford performed a 1. All matter is composed of atoms. We now know that atoms are divisible and
series of experiments with radioactive el-
composed of smaller, subatomic particles (electrons, protons, and neutrons), but
ements that shocked the scientific world.
When a radioactive atom of thorium
the atom is still the smallest body that retains the unique identity of an element.
(Z  90) emits an  particle (Z  2), it be- 2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another element in a
comes an atom of radium (Z  88), which chemical reaction. We now know that, in nuclear reactions, atoms of one ele-
then emits another  particle and becomes ment often change into atoms of another, but this never happens in a chemi-
an atom of radon (Z  86). He proposed cal reaction.
that when an atom emits an  particle, it 3. All atoms of an element have the same number of protons and electrons, which
turns into a different atom—one element determines the chemical behavior of the element. We now know that isotopes
changes into another! Many viewed this of an element differ in the number of neutrons, and thus in mass number, but
conclusion as a return to alchemy, and, as a sample of the element is treated as though its atoms have an average mass.
with Thomson’s discovery that atoms con- 4. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements
tain smaller particles, Rutherford’s findings
in specific ratios. We now know that a few compounds can have slight varia-
fell on disbelieving ears.
tions in their atom ratios, but this postulate remains essentially unchanged.
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2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 57

Even today, our picture of the atom is being revised. Although we are confi-
dent about the distribution of electrons within the atom (Chapters 7 and 8), the
interactions among protons and neutrons within the nucleus are still on the fron-
tier of discovery (Chapter 24).

Section Summary
An atom has a central nucleus, which contains positively charged protons and
uncharged neutrons and is surrounded by negatively charged electrons. An atom is
neutral because the number of electrons equals the number of protons. • An atom is
represented by the notation AZ X, in which Z is the atomic number (number of protons),
A the mass number (sum of protons and neutrons), and X the atomic symbol. • An
element occurs naturally as a mixture of isotopes, atoms with the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons. Each isotope has a mass relative to the
12
C mass standard. • The atomic mass of an element is the average of its isotopic
masses weighted according to their natural abundances and is determined by mod-
ern instruments, especially the mass spectrometer.

2.6 ELEMENTS: A FIRST LOOK AT THE PERIODIC TABLE Literature Talanquer, Vicente. “Recreating a
Periodic Table: A Tool for Developing Pedagogical
At the end of the 18th century, Lavoisier compiled a list of the 23 elements known Content Knowledge,” Chem. Educator 10 2005, 2, 95–99.

at that time; by 1870, 65 were known; by 1925, 88; today, there are 116 and still
counting! These elements combine to form millions of compounds, so we clearly
need some way to organize what we know about their behavior. By the mid-19th Literature Dopke, Nancy Carter; Treichel, Paul
M., Jr.; Vestling, Martha M. “Significant Figures, the
century, enormous amounts of information concerning reactions, properties, and Periodic Table, and Mass Spectrometry: The Challenge
atomic masses of the elements had been accumulated. Several researchers noted of Large Biomolecules,” J. Chem. Educ. 2000, 77, 1065.
recurring, or periodic, patterns of behavior and proposed schemes to organize the
elements according to some fundamental property.
In 1871, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1836–1907) published the
most successful of these organizing schemes as a table of the elements listed by
increasing atomic mass and arranged so that elements with similar chemical proper-
ties fell in the same column. The modern periodic table of the elements, based
on Mendeleev’s earlier version (but arranged by atomic number, not mass), is one
of the great classifying schemes in science and is now an indispensable tool to
chemists. Throughout your study of chemistry, the periodic table will guide you Literature Dutch, Steven I. “Periodic Tables of
through an otherwise dizzying amount of chemical and physical behavior. Elemental Abundance,” J. Chem. Educ. 1999, 76, 356.

Organization of the Periodic Table A modern version of the periodic table

appears in Figure 2.9 on the next page and inside the front cover. It is formatted
as follows:
1. Each element has a box that contains its atomic number, atomic symbol, and
atomic mass. The boxes lie in order of increasing atomic number (number of
protons) as you move from left to right.
2. The boxes are arranged into a grid of periods (horizontal rows) and groups Literature He, Fu-cheng; Li, Xiang-yuan. “The
(vertical columns). Each period has a number from 1 to 7. Each group has a Periodic Building of the Elements: Can a Periodic Table
Be Transformed into a Stereo One?” J. Chem. Educ.
number from 1 to 8 and either the letter A or B. A new system, with group 1997, 74, 792.
numbers from 1 to 18 but no letters, appears in parentheses under the number-
letter designations. (Most chemists still use the number-letter system, so the
text retains it, but shows the new numbering system in parentheses.)
3. The eight A groups (two on the left and six on the right) contain the main-
group, or representative, elements. The ten B groups, located between Groups
2A(2) and 3A(13), contain the transition elements. Two horizontal series of
inner transition elements, the lanthanides and the actinides, fit between the ele-
ments in Group 3B(3) and Group 4B(4) and are usually placed below the main
body of the table.
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58 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

MAIN–GROUP Metals (main-group) MAIN–GROUP

ELEMENTS Metals (transition) ELEMENTS
Metals (inner transition)
1A Metalloids 8A
(1) Nonmetals (18)
1 2
1 H 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
1.008 (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 TRANSITION ELEMENTS 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Period

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.41 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
(223) (226) (227) (263) (262) (266) (267) (277) (268) (281) (272) (285) (284) (289) (288) (292)

INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
6 Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
7 Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232.0 (231) 238.0 (237) (242) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260)

Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. The table consists of ele- placed below the main body of the table but actually fit between the
ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (verti- elements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick
cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the “staircase” line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and in-
atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in paren- clude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.) inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the place-
families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112–116
parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups had not been named.
are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
ARIS Presentation Center, Active Art Library

At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their
classification as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The “staircase” line that runs
from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a
dividing line for this classification. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in
the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are
metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner tran-
sition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is
the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets
(malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small
Literature Jensen, William B. “Why Helium Ends upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at
in “-ium”,” J. Chem. Educ. 2004, 81, 944.
room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity
poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals),
elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several
siL48593_ch02_040-088 8:7:07 04:44pm Page 59 nishant-13 ve403:MHQY042:siL5ch02:

2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 59

Cadmium
(Z = 48) Lead
Copper
(Z = 29) (Z = 82)

Chromium Bismuth
(Z = 24) (Z = 83)

METALS

Arsenic
(Z = 33)
Silicon Antimony Chlorine Bromine
(Z = 14) (Z = 51) (Z = 17) (Z = 35)

Tellurium Sulfur
Boron (Z = 52) (Z = 16)
(Z = 5)
Carbon Iodine
(graphite) (Z = 53)
(Z = 6)

METALLOIDS NONMETALS

Figure 2.10 Some metals, metalloids, and nonmetals. ARIS Presentation Center, Photo Library

metalloids, such as silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge), play major roles in modern
electronics. Figure 2.10 shows examples of these three classes of elements.
Two of the major branches of chemistry have traditionally been defined by Literature Nelson, P. G. “Important Elements,”
J. Chem. Educ. 1991, 68, 732.
the elements that each studies. Organic chemistry studies the compounds of car-
bon, specifically those that contain hydrogen and often oxygen, nitrogen, and a
few other elements. This branch is concerned with fuels, drugs, dyes, polymers,
and the like. Inorganic chemistry, on the other hand, focuses mainly on the com-
pounds of all the other elements. It is concerned with catalysts, electronic mate-
rials, metal alloys, mineral salts, and the like. With the explosive growth in
biomedical and materials research, the line between these branches has all but Literature Ringnes, Vivi. “Origin of the Names of
Chemical Elements,” J. Chem. Educ. 1989, 66, 731.
disappeared.
It is important to learn some of the group (family) names. Group 1A(1),
Literature Cronyn, Marshall W. “The Proper
except for hydrogen, consists of the alkali metals, and Group 2A(2) consists of Place for Hydrogen in the Periodic Table,” J. Chem.
the alkaline earth metals. Both groups consist of highly reactive elements. The Educ. 2003, 80, 947.
halogens, Group 7A(17), are highly reactive nonmetals, whereas the noble gases,
Group 8A(18), are relatively unreactive nonmetals. Other main groups [3A(13) to
6A(16)] are often named for the first element in the group; for example, Group
6A is the oxygen family.
A key point that we return to many times is that, in general, elements in a
group have similar chemical properties and elements in a period have different
chemical properties. We begin applying the organizing power of the periodic table
in the next section, where we discuss how elements combine to form compounds.

Section Summary
In the periodic table, the elements are arranged by atomic number into horizontal peri-
ods and vertical groups. • Because of the periodic recurrence of certain key proper-
ties, elements within a group have similar behavior, whereas elements in a period have
dissimilar behavior. • Nonmetals appear in the upper-right portion of the table, met-
alloids lie along a staircase line, and metals fill the rest of the table.
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60 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

2.7 COMPOUNDS: INTRODUCTION TO BONDING

The overwhelming majority of elements occur in chemical combination with other
elements. In fact, only a few elements occur free in nature. The noble gases—
helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn)—
occur in air as separate atoms. In addition to occurring in compounds, oxygen
(O), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S) occur in the most common elemental form as
the molecules O2, N2, and S8, and carbon (C) occurs in vast, nearly pure deposits
Animation: Formation of an Ionic Compound
of coal. Some of the metals, such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and plat-
ARIS Presentation Center inum (Pt), may also occur uncombined with other elements. But these few excep-
Chapter 2
tions reinforce the general rule that elements occur combined in compounds.
It is the electrons of the atoms of interacting elements that are involved in
ARIS Presentation Center, Photo Library
compound formation. Elements combine in two general ways:
ARIS Presentation Center, Active Art Library
1. Transferring electrons from the atoms of one element to those of another to
form ionic compounds
A The elements
(lab view) 2. Sharing electrons between atoms of different elements to form covalent
compounds
These processes generate chemical bonds, the forces that hold the atoms of ele-
ments together in a compound. We’ll introduce compound formation next and
have much more to say about it in later chapters.
The Formation of Ionic Compounds
Chlorine gas Ionic compounds are composed of ions, charged particles that form when an atom
(or small group of atoms) gains or loses one or more electrons. The simplest type
Sodium metal of ionic compound is a binary ionic compound, one composed of just two ele-
ments. It typically forms when a metal reacts with a nonmetal. Each metal atom
B The
elements
loses a certain number of its electrons and becomes a cation, a positively charged
(atomic ion. The nonmetal atoms gain the electrons lost by the metal atoms and become
view) anions, negatively charged ions. In effect, the metal atoms transfer electrons to
the nonmetal atoms. The resulting cations and anions attract each other through
electrostatic forces and form the ionic compound. All binary ionic compounds are
solids. A cation or anion derived from a single atom is called a monatomic ion;
we’ll discuss polyatomic ions, those derived from a small group of atoms, later.
The formation of the binary ionic compound sodium chloride, common table
salt, is depicted in Figure 2.11, from the elements through the atomic-scale
–
Chloride ion (Cl )
Cl – Na+
17e– 18e–
Gains
17p + electron
18n0 17p +
18n0

Chlorine atom (Cl)

e–

11p +
12n0
11p +
12n0 Loses electron 10e–
Sodium ion (Na+)
11e–

Sodium atom (Na) D The compound (atomic view): E The compound (lab view):
C Electron transfer Na+ and Cl– in the crystal sodium chloride crystal
Figure 2.11 The formation of an ionic compound. A, The two ele- are smaller, and when they gain electrons, they become ions that are
ments as seen in the laboratory. B, The elements on the atomic scale. larger.) D, Na and Cl ions attract each other and form a regular three-
C, The neutral sodium atom loses one electron to become a sodium cation dimensional array. E, This arrangement of the ions is reflected in the struc-
(Na), and the chlorine atom gains one electron to become a chloride ture of crystalline NaCl, which occurs naturally as the mineral halite, hence
anion (Cl). (Note that when atoms lose electrons, they become ions that the name halogens for the Group 7A(17) elements.
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2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding 61

electron transfer to the compound. In the electron transfer, a sodium atom, which
Attraction increases
is neutral because it has the same number of protons as electrons, loses one elec-
tron and forms a sodium cation, Na. (The charge on the ion is written as a right

Attraction increases
1+ 1– 2+ 2–
superscript.) A chlorine atom gains the electron and becomes a chloride anion,
Cl. (The name change from the nonmetal atom to the ion is discussed in the
next section.) Even the tiniest visible grain of table salt contains an enormous
number of sodium and chloride ions. The oppositely charged ions (Na and Cl)
attract each other, and the similarly charged ions (Na and Na, or Cl and Cl) 1+ 1– 2+ 2–
repel each other. The resulting solid aggregation is a regular array of alternating
Na and Cl ions that extends in all three dimensions.
The strength of the ionic bonding depends to a great extent on the net strength Figure 2.12 Factors that influence the
of these attractions and repulsions and is described by Coulomb’s law, which can strength of ionic bonding. For ions of a
given size, strength of attraction (arrows)
be expressed as follows: the energy of attraction (or repulsion) between two par-
increases with higher ionic charge (left to
ticles is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely propor- right). For ions of a given charge, strength
tional to the distance between them. of attraction increases with smaller ionic
size (bottom to top).
charge 1  charge 2
Energy r
distance Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center,
Art Library
In other words, ions with higher charges attract (or repel) each other more strongly
than ions with lower charges. Likewise, smaller ions attract (or repel) each other
more strongly than larger ions, because their charges are closer together. These
effects are summarized in Figure 2.12.
Ionic compounds are neutral; that is, they possess no net charge. For this to
occur, they must contain equal numbers of positive and negative charges—not
necessarily equal numbers of positive and negative ions. Because Na and Cl
each bear a unit charge (1 or 1), equal numbers of these ions are present in
sodium chloride; but in sodium oxide, for example, there are two Na ions present
to balance the 2 charge of each oxide ion, O2. Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center,
Art Library
Can we predict the number of electrons a given atom will lose or gain when
it forms an ion? In the formation of sodium chloride, for example, why does each
sodium atom give up only 1 of its 11 electrons? Why doesn’t each chlorine atom
gain two electrons, instead of just one? For A-group elements, the periodic table 3A
2A )
provides an answer. We generally find that metals lose electrons and nonmetals 7A 8A 1A (13
(17) (18) (1) (2)
gain electrons to form ions with the same number of electrons as in an atom of 5A
(15) 6A H– Li+
the nearest noble gas [Group 8A(18)]. Noble gases have a stability (low reactiv- (16) He
3 +
ity) that is related to their number (and arrangement) of electrons. A sodium atom N3–
O2– 2+ Al
F– Ne Na+ Mg
(11e) can attain the stability of neon (10e), the nearest noble gas, by losing
one electron. Similarly, by gaining one electron, a chlorine atom (17e) attains S2– Cl– K+ Ca
2+

the stability of argon (18e), its nearest noble gas. Thus, when an element located
Ar
2+
near a noble gas forms a monatomic ion, it gains or loses enough electrons to Br– Kr Rb+ Sr
attain the same number as that noble gas. Specifically, the elements that are in
2+
Group 1A(1) lose one electron, those in Group 2A(2) lose two, and aluminum in I– Xe Cs+ Ba
Group 3A(13) loses three; the elements in Group 7A(17) gain one electron, oxy-
gen and sulfur in Group 6A(16) gain two, and nitrogen in Group 5A(15) gains
three. Figure 2.13 The relationship between
With the periodic table printed on a two-dimensional surface, as in Figure ions formed and the nearest noble gas.
2.9, it is easy to get the false impression that the elements in Group 7A(17) are This periodic table was redrawn to show
“closer” to the noble gases than the elements in Group 1A(1). Actually, both the positions of other nonmetals (yellow)
and metals ( blue) relative to the noble
groups are only one electron away from having the same number of electrons as gases and to show the ions these
the noble gases. To make this point, Figure 2.13 shows a modified periodic table elements form. The ionic charge equals
of monatomic ions that is cut and rejoined as a cylinder. Now you can see that the number of electrons lost () or gained
fluorine (F; Z  9) has one electron fewer than the noble gas neon (Ne; Z  10) () to attain the same number of electrons
and sodium (Na; Z  11) has one electron more; thus, they form the F and Na as the nearest noble gas. Species in the
same row have the same number of elec-
ions. Similarly, oxygen (O; Z  8) gains two electrons and magnesium (Mg; trons. For example, H, He, and Li all
Z  12) loses two to form the O2 and Mg2 ions and attain the same number have two electrons. [Note that H is shown
of electrons as neon. here in Group 7A(17).]
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62 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples Library
e– e–
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.6 Predicting the Ion an Element Forms
p+ p+ PROBLEM What monatomic ions do the following elements form?
(a) Iodine (Z  53) (b) Calcium (Z  20) (c) Aluminum (Z  13)
PLAN We use the given Z value to find the element in the periodic table and see where
A No interaction its group lies relative to the noble gases. Elements in Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose elec-
trons to attain the same number as the nearest noble gas and become positive ions; those
in Groups 5A, 6A, and 7A gain electrons and become negative ions.
e– e– SOLUTION (a) I Iodine (53I) is a nonmetal in Group 7A(17), one of the halogens. Like
p+ p+ any member of this group, it gains 1 electron to have the same number as the nearest
Group 8A(18) member, in this case 54Xe.
(b) Ca2 Calcium (20Ca) is a member of Group 2A(2), the alkaline earth metals. Like
B Attraction begins any Group 2A member, it loses 2 electrons to attain the same number as the nearest noble
gas, in this case, 18Ar.
(c) Al3 Aluminum (13Al) is a metal in the boron family [Group 3A(13)] and thus loses
e– 3 electrons to attain the same number as its nearest noble gas, 10Ne.
p+ p+ FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6 What monatomic ion does each of the following ele-
e– ments form: (a) 16S; (b) 37Rb; (c) 56Ba?

C Covalent bond
The Formation of Covalent Compounds
e–
Covalent compounds form when elements share electrons, which usually occurs
between nonmetals. Even though relatively few nonmetals exist, they interact in
p+ p+
many combinations to form a very large number of covalent compounds.
e–
The simplest case of electron sharing occurs not in a compound but between
two hydrogen atoms (H; Z  1). Imagine two separated H atoms approaching
D Interaction of forces
each other, as in Figure 2.14. As they get closer, the nucleus of each atom attracts
Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent the electron of the other atom more and more strongly, and the separated atoms
bond between two H atoms. A, The begin to interpenetrate each other. At some optimum distance between the nuclei,
distance is too great for the atoms to the two atoms form a covalent bond, a pair of electrons mutually attracted by
affect each other. B, As the distance de-
the two nuclei. The result is a hydrogen molecule, in which each electron no
creases, the nucleus of each atom begins
to attract the electron of the other. C, The longer “belongs” to a particular H atom: the two electrons are shared by the two
covalent bond forms when the two nuclei nuclei. Repulsions between the nuclei and between the electrons also occur, but
mutually attract the pair of electrons at the net attraction is greater than the net repulsion. (We discuss the properties of
some optimum distance. D, The H2 mol- covalent bonds in great detail in Chapter 9.)
ecule is more stable than the separate
A sample of hydrogen gas consists of these diatomic molecules (H2)—pairs
atoms because the attractive forces
(black arrows) between each nucleus and of atoms that are chemically bound and behave as an independent unit—not sep-
the two electrons are greater than the arate H atoms. Other nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules at room tem-
repulsive forces (red arrows) between the perature are nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), and the halogens [fluorine (F2), chlorine
electrons and between the nuclei. (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2)]. Phosphorus exists as tetratomic molecules
Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center, (P4), and sulfur and selenium as octatomic molecules (S8 and Se8) (Figure 2.15).
Art Library At room temperature, covalent substances may be gases, liquids, or solids.

ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library Figure 2.15 Elements that occur as 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
molecules. (1) (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)

1 H2
Diatomic molecules N2 O2 F2
2
Tetratomic molecules
Octatomic molecules 3 P4 S8 Cl2

4 Se8 Br2

5 I2

7
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2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding 63

Atoms of different elements share electrons to form the molecules of a cova-

lent compound. A sample of hydrogen fluoride, for example, consists of molecules
in which one H atom forms a covalent bond with one F atom; water consists of
molecules in which one O atom forms covalent bonds with two H atoms:

Hydrogen fluoride, HF Water, H2O

(As you’ll see in Chapter 9, covalent bonding provides another way for atoms to Ca2ⴙ CO32ⴚ
attain the same number of electrons as the nearest noble gas.)
Distinguishing the Entities in Covalent and Ionic Substances There is a key
distinction between the chemical entities in covalent substances and ionic sub-
stances. Most covalent substances consist of molecules. A cup of water, for exam-
ple, consists of individual water molecules lying near each other. In contrast,
under ordinary conditions, no molecules exist in a sample of an ionic compound.
A piece of sodium chloride, for example, is a continuous array of oppositely
charged sodium and chloride ions, not a collection of individual “sodium chloride
molecules.”
Another key distinction exists between the nature of the particles attracting each 2–
other. Covalent bonding involves the mutual attraction between two (positively
charged) nuclei and the two (negatively charged) electrons that reside between
them. Ionic bonding involves the mutual attraction between positive and nega-
tive ions.
Polyatomic Ions: Covalent Bonds Within Ions Many ionic compounds contain Carbonate ion
–
polyatomic ions, which consist of two or more atoms bonded covalently and have CO32

a net positive or negative charge. For example, the ionic compound calcium car- Figure 2.16 A polyatomic ion. Calcium
bonate is an array of polyatomic carbonate anions and monatomic calcium cations carbonate is a three-dimensional array of
attracted to each other. The carbonate ion consists of a carbon atom covalently monatomic calcium cations (purple
bonded to three oxygen atoms, and two additional electrons give the ion its 2 spheres) and polyatomic carbonate an-
charge (Figure 2.16). In many reactions, a polyatomic ion stays together as a unit. ions. As the bottom structure shows,
each carbonate ion consists of four cova-
lently bonded atoms.
The Elements of Life ARIS Presentation Center, Photo Library
About one-quarter of all the elements have known roles in organisms. As you can
see in Figure 2.17, metals, nonmetals, and metalloids are among these essential Literature Marshall, James L. “A Living Periodic
Table,” J. Chem. Educ. 2000, 77, 979.
elements. But, except for some diatomic oxygen and nitrogen molecules inhaled
into the lungs, none of the elements in organisms occurs in pure form; rather, they
Biological application
appear in compounds or as ions in solution.

1A 8A
Building-block elements
(1) (18)
2A Major minerals 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
1 H (2) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17)
Trace elements
2 B C N O F
3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B
3 Na Mg Si P S Cl
(3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
4 K Ca V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn As Se

5 Mo Sn I

Figure 2.17 A biological periodic table. The building-block elements and major minerals are ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library
required by all organisms. Most organisms, including humans, require the trace elements as well.
Many other elements (not shown) are found in organisms but have no known role.
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64 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

The elements of life are often classified by the amount present in organisms.
The four nonmetals carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) are
the building-block elements because they make up the major portion of biologi-
cal molecules. Over 99% of the atoms in organisms are C, O, H, and N; in
humans, they account for over 96% by mass of body weight. The nonmetals O
and H make up the water in organisms, of course, and together with C occur in
all four major classes of biological molecules—carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and
nucleic acids. All proteins and nucleic acids also contain N.
The seven major minerals (or macronutrients) range from around 2% by mass
for calcium (Ca) to around 0.14% by mass for chlorine (Cl). The alkali metals
sodium and potassium and the halogen chlorine are dissolved in cell fluids as the
ions Na, K, and Cl. The alkaline earth metals magnesium and calcium occur
as Mg2 and Ca2, most often bound to proteins or, in the case of calcium, in
bones and teeth. Sulfur (S) occurs mostly in proteins, but phosphorus (P) also
occurs in nucleic acids, many fats, and sugars, and as part of a polyatomic ion in
bone and cell fluids.
The trace elements (or micronutrients) are present in much lower amounts,
with iron (Fe) the most abundant at only 0.005% by mass. Most of them are asso-
ciated with protein functions. We will look more closely at the trace elements in
Chapter 23.

Section Summary
Although a few elements occur uncombined in nature, the great majority exist in
compounds. • Ionic compounds form when a metal transfers electrons to a non-
metal, and the resulting positive and negative ions attract each other to form a three-
dimensional array. In many cases, metal atoms lose and nonmetal atoms gain enough
electrons to attain the same number of electrons as in atoms of the nearest noble gas.
• Covalent compounds form when elements, usually nonmetals, share electrons.
Each covalent bond is an electron pair mutually attracted by two atomic nuclei. •
Monatomic ions are derived from single atoms. Polyatomic ions consist of two or
more covalently bonded atoms that have a net positive or negative charge due to a
deficit or excess of electrons. • The elements in organisms are found as ions or
bonded in large biomolecules. Four building-block elements (C, O, H, N) form these
compounds, seven other elements (major minerals, or macronutrients) are also com-
mon, and many others (trace elements, or micronutrients) occur in tiny amounts and
play specific roles.

Literature Wirtz, Michael C.; Kaufmann, Joan; 2.8 COMPOUNDS: FORMULAS, NAMES, AND MASSES
Hawley, Gary. “Nomenclature Made Practical: Student
Discovery of the Nomenclature Rules,” J. Chem. Educ. Names and formulas of compounds form the vocabulary of the chemical language.
2006, 83, 595.
In this discussion, you’ll learn the names and formulas of ionic and simple cova-
lent compounds and how to calculate the mass of a unit of a compound from its
Literature Chimeno, Joseph. “How to Make
Learning Chemical Nomenclature Fun, Exciting, and formula.
Palatable,” J. Chem. Educ. 2000, 77, 144.

Types of Chemical Formulas

Literature Lind, Gerhard. “Teaching Inorganic
Nomenclature: A Systematic Approach,” J. Chem. Educ. In a chemical formula, element symbols and numerical subscripts show the type
1992, 69, 613. and number of each atom present in the smallest unit of the substance. There are
several types of chemical formulas for a compound:
1. The empirical formula shows the relative number of atoms of each element
in the compound. It is the simplest type of formula and is derived from the
masses of the component elements. For example, in hydrogen peroxide, there
is 1 part by mass of hydrogen for every 16 parts by mass of oxygen. There-
fore, the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO: one H atom for every
O atom.
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2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 65

2. The molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element in Table 2.3 Common Monatomic
a molecule of the compound. The molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide is Ions*
H2O2; there are two H atoms and two O atoms in each molecule.
3. A structural formula shows the number of atoms and the bonds between them; Charge Formula Name
that is, the relative placement and connections of atoms in the molecule. The Cations
structural formula of hydrogen peroxide is H±O±O±H; each H is bonded
1 H hydrogen
to an O, and the O’s are bonded to each other. Li lithium
Na sodium
K potassium
Some Advice about Learning Names and Formulas Cs cesium
Perhaps in the future, systematic names for compounds will be used by everyone. Ag silver
However, many reference books, chemical supply catalogs, and practicing 2 Mg2 magnesium
chemists still use many common (trivial) names, so you should learn them as well. Ca2 calcium
Here are some points to note about ion formulas: Sr2 strontium
Ba2 barium
• Members of a periodic table group have the same ionic charge; for example,
Zn2 zinc
Li, Na, and K are all in Group 1A and all have a 1 charge. Cd2 cadmium
• For A-group cations, ion charge  group number: for example, Na is in
Group 1A, Ba2 in Group 2A. (Exceptions in Figure 2.18 are Sn2 and Pb2.) 3 Al3 aluminum
• For anions, ion charge  group number minus 8: for example, S is in Group Anions
6A (6  8  2), so the ion is S2.
1 H hydride
Here are some suggestions about how to learn names and formulas: F fluoride
Cl chloride
1. Memorize the A-group monatomic ions of Table 2.3 (all except Ag, Zn2, Br bromide
and Cd2) according to their positions in Figure 2.18. These ions have the same I iodide
number of electrons as an atom of the nearest noble gas.
2 O2 oxide
2. Consult Table 2.4 (page 67) and Figure 2.18 for some metals that form two
S2 sulfide
different monatomic ions.
3. Divide the tables of names and charges into smaller batches, and learn a batch 3 N3 nitride
each day. Try flash cards, with the name on one side and the ion formula on *Listed by charge; those in boldface
the other. The most common ions are shown in boldface in Tables 2.3, 2.4, are most common.
and 2.5, so you can focus on learning them first. ARIS Presentation Center, Tables Library

Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center,

Art Library
1A Figure 2.18 Some common monatomic ions of the elements. 7A 8A
(1) Main-group elements usually form a single monatomic ion. Note (17) (18)
that members of a group have ions with the same charge. [Hydro-
1 H+ 2A gen is shown as both the cation H in Group 1A(1) and the anion 3A 4A 5A 6A H–
(2) H in Group 7A(17).] Many transition elements form two different (13) (14) (15) (16)
monatomic ions. (Although Hg22 is a diatomic ion, it is included
for comparison with Hg2.)
2 Li+ N 3– O2– F–

3 Na+ Mg2+ 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B Al3+ S2– Cl–

(3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Period

Cr2+ Fe2+ Co2+ Cu+

4 K+ Ca2+ Mn2+ Zn2+ Br –
Cr3+ Fe3+ Co3+ Cu2+

Sn2+
5 Rb+ Sr2+ Ag+ Cd2+ I–
Sn4+

Hg22+ Pb2+
6 Cs+ Ba2+
Hg2+ Pb4+

7
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66 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

All ionic compound names give the positive ion (cation) first and the negative ion
(anion) second.
Compounds Formed from Monatomic Ions Let’s first consider how to name
binary ionic compounds, those composed of ions of two elements.
• The name of the cation is the same as the name of the metal. Many metal
names end in -ium.
• The name of the anion takes the root of the nonmetal name and adds the
suffix -ide.
For example, the anion formed from bromine is named bromide (bromide).
Therefore, the compound formed from the metal calcium and the nonmetal
bromine is named calcium bromide.

ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.7 Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Library
PROBLEM Name the ionic compound formed from the following pairs of elements:
(a) Magnesium and nitrogen (b) Iodine and cadmium
(c) Strontium and fluorine (d) Sulfur and cesium
PLAN The key to naming a binary ionic compound is to recognize which element is the
metal and which is the nonmetal. When in doubt, check the periodic table. We place the
cation name first, add the suffix -ide to the nonmetal root, and place the anion name last.
SOLUTION (a) Magnesium is the metal; nitr- is the nonmetal root: magnesium nitride
(b) Cadmium is the metal; iod- is the nonmetal root: cadmium iodide
(c) Strontium is the metal; fluor- is the nonmetal root: strontium fluoride (Note the
spelling is fluoride, not flouride.)
(d) Cesium is the metal; sulf- is the nonmetal root: cesium sulfide
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.7 For the following ionic compounds, give the name and
periodic table group number of each of the elements present: (a) zinc oxide; (b) silver
bromide; (c) lithium chloride; (d) aluminum sulfide.

Ionic compounds are arrays of oppositely charged ions rather than separate
molecular units. Therefore, we write a formula for the formula unit, which gives
the relative numbers of cations and anions in the compound. Thus, ionic com-
pounds generally have only empirical formulas.* The compound has zero net
charge, so the positive charges of the cations must balance the negative charges
of the anions. For example, calcium bromide is composed of Ca2 ions and Br
ions; therefore, two Br balance each Ca2. The formula is CaBr2, not Ca2Br. In
this and all other formulas,
• The subscript refers to the element preceding it.
• The subscript 1 is understood from the presence of the element symbol alone
(that is, we do not write Ca1Br2).
• The charge (without the sign) of one ion becomes the subscript of the other:
Ca2 Br1 gives Ca1Br2 or CaBr2
Reduce the subscripts to the smallest whole numbers that retain the ratio of ions.
Thus, for example, from the ions Ca2 and O2 we have Ca2O2, which we reduce
to the formula CaO (but see the footnote).

*Compounds of the mercury(I) ion, such as Hg2Cl2, and peroxides of the alkali metals, such as
Na2O2, are the only two common exceptions. Their empirical formulas are HgCl and NaO,
respectively.
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2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 67

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.8 Determining Formulas of Binary Ionic ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples
Library
Compounds
PROBLEM Write empirical formulas for the compounds named in Sample Problem 2.7.
PLAN We write the empirical formula by finding the smallest number of each ion that gives
the neutral compound. These numbers appear as right subscripts to the element symbol.
SOLUTION
(a)Mg2 and N3; three Mg2 ions (6) balance two N3 ions (6): Mg3N2
(b)Cd2 and I; one Cd2 ion (2) balances two I ions (2): CdI2
(c)Sr2 and F; one Sr2 ion (2) balances two F ions (2): SrF2
(d)Cs and S2; two Cs ions (2) balance one S2 ion (2): Cs2S
COMMENT Note that ion charges do not appear in the compound formula. That is, for cad-
mium iodide, we do not write Cd2I2.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.8 Write the formulas of the compounds named in Follow-
up Problem 2.7.

Compounds with Metals That Can Form More Than One Ion Many metals,
particularly the transition elements (B groups), can form more than one ion, each
with its own particular charge. Table 2.4 lists some examples, and the earlier
Figure 2.18 shows their placement in the periodic table. Names of compounds
containing these elements include a Roman numeral within parentheses immedi-
ately after the metal ion’s name to indicate its ionic charge. For example, iron can
form Fe2 and Fe3 ions. The two compounds that iron forms with chlorine are
FeCl2, named iron(II) chloride (spoken “iron two chloride”), and FeCl3, named
iron(III) chloride.
In common names, the Latin root of the metal is followed by either of two
suffixes:
• The suffix -ous for the ion with the lower charge
• The suffix -ic for the ion with the higher charge
Thus, iron(II) chloride is also called ferrous chloride and iron(III) chloride is fer-
ric chloride. (You can easily remember this naming relationship because there is
an o in -ous and lower, and an i in -ic and higher.)

Table 2.4 Some Metals That Form More Than One Monatomic Ion* ARIS Presentation Center, Tables Library

Element Ion Formula Systematic Name Common (Trivial) Name

2
Chromium Cr chromium(II) chromous
Cr3 chromium(III) chromic
Cobalt Co2 cobalt(II)
Co3 cobalt(III)
Copper Cu copper(I) cuprous
Cu2 copper(II) cupric
Iron Fe2 iron(II) ferrous
Fe3 iron(III) ferric
Lead Pb2 lead(II)
Pb4 lead(IV)
Mercury Hg22 mercury(I) mercurous
Hg2 mercury(II) mercuric
Tin Sn2 tin(II) stannous
Sn4 tin(IV) stannic
*Listed alphabetically by metal name; those in boldface are most common.
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68 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples Library

Table 2.5 Common Polyatomic SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.9 Determining Names and Formulas of Ionic
Ions* Compounds of Elements That Form More
Formula Name Than One Ion
PROBLEM Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas for the names of
Cations
the following compounds: (a) tin(II) fluoride; (b) CrI3; (c) ferric oxide; (d) CoS.
NH4 ammonium SOLUTION (a) Tin(II) is Sn2; fluoride is F. Two F ions balance one Sn2 ion: tin(II)
H3O hydronium fluoride is SnF2. (The common name is stannous fluoride.)
Anions (b) The anion is I, iodide, and the formula shows three I. Therefore, the cation must
be Cr3, chromium(III): CrI3 is chromium(III) iodide. (The common name is chromic
CH3COO acetate iodide.)
(or C2H3O2) (c) Ferric is the common name for iron(III), Fe3; oxide ion is O2. To balance the ionic
CN cyanide charges, the formula of ferric oxide is Fe2O3. [The systematic name is iron(III) oxide.]
OH hydroxide (d) The anion is sulfide, S2, which requires that the cation be Co2. The name is
ClO hypochlorite cobalt(II) sulfide.
ClO2 chlorite
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.9 Give the systematic names for the formulas or the for-
ClO3 chlorate mulas for the names of the following compounds: (a) lead(IV) oxide; (b) Cu2S; (c) FeBr2;
ClO4 perchlorate (d) mercuric chloride.
NO2 nitrite
NO3 nitrate
MnO4 permanganate
CO32 carbonate Compounds Formed from Polyatomic Ions Ionic compounds in which one or both
HCO3 hydrogen of the ions are polyatomic are very common. Table 2.5 gives the formulas and
carbonate (or the names of some common polyatomic ions. Remember that the polyatomic ion
bicarbonate)
stays together as a charged unit. The formula for potassium nitrate is KNO3: each
CrO42 chromate
K balances one NO3. The formula for sodium carbonate is Na2CO3: two Na
Cr2O72 dichromate
balance one CO32. When two or more of the same polyatomic ion are present
O22 peroxide
in the formula unit, that ion appears in parentheses with the subscript written
PO43 phosphate
outside. For example, calcium nitrate, which contains one Ca2 and two NO3
HPO42 hydrogen
ions, has the formula Ca(NO3)2. Parentheses and a subscript are not used unless
phosphate
more than one of the polyatomic ions is present; thus, sodium nitrate is NaNO3,
H2PO4 dihydrogen
phosphate
not Na(NO3).
SO32 sulfite Families of Oxoanions As Table 2.5 shows, most polyatomic ions are oxoanions,
SO42 sulfate those in which an element, usually a nonmetal, is bonded to one or more oxygen
HSO4 hydrogen sulfate atoms. There are several families of two or four oxoanions that differ only in the
(or bisulfate) number of oxygen atoms. The following simple naming conventions are used with
*Boldface ions are most common.
these ions.
With two oxoanions in the family:
ARIS Presentation Center, Tables Library
• The ion with more O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the suffix -ate.
• The ion with fewer O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the suffix -ite.
For example, SO42 is the sulfate ion, and SO32 is the sulfite ion; similarly,
ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library NO3 is nitrate, and NO2 is nitrite.
Prefix Root Suffix
With four oxoanions in the family (usually a halogen bonded to O), as Fig-
ure 2.19 shows:
per root ate
• The ion with most O atoms has the prefix per-, the nonmetal root, and the suf-
No. of O atoms

root ate fix -ate.

• The ion with one fewer O atom has just the root and the suffix -ate.
root ite
• The ion with two fewer O atoms has just the root and the suffix -ite.
hypo root ite • The ion with least (three fewer) O atoms has the prefix hypo-, the root, and
the suffix -ite.
Figure 2.19 Naming oxoanions. Pre- For example, for the four chlorine oxoanions,
fixes and suffixes indicate the number of
O atoms in the anion. ClO4 is perchlorate, ClO3 is chlorate, ClO2 is chlorite, ClO is hypochlorite
Literature Marmorino, M. G. “Mnemonic for Oxoanion Formulas,” Chem. Educator 10 2005, 6, 415.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 8:7:07 04:44pm Page 69 nishant-13 ve403:MHQY042:siL5ch02:

2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 69

Hydrated Ionic Compounds Ionic compounds called hydrates have a specific Table 2.6 Numerical Prefixes for
number of water molecules associated with each formula unit. In their formulas, Hydrates and Binary
this number is shown after a centered dot. It is indicated in the systematic name Covalent Compounds
by a Greek numerical prefix before the word hydrate. Table 2.6 shows these pre-
Number Prefix
fixes. For example, Epsom salt has the formula MgSO47H2O and the name mag-
nesium sulfate heptahydrate. Similarly, the mineral gypsum has the formula 1 mono-
CaSO42H2O and the name calcium sulfate dihydrate. The water molecules, 2 di-
referred to as “waters of hydration,” are part of the hydrate’s structure. Heating 3 tri-
can remove some or all of them, leading to a different substance. For example, 4 tetra-
when heated strongly, blue copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO45H2O) is con- 5 penta-
verted to white copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4). 6 hexa-
ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples Library 7 hepta-
8 octa-
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.10 Determining Names and Formulas of Ionic 9 nona-
Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 10 deca-
PROBLEM Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas for the names of
ARIS Presentation Center, Tables Library
the following compounds:
(a) Fe(ClO4)2 (b) Sodium sulfite (c) Ba(OH)28H2O
SOLUTION (a) ClO4 is perchlorate, which has a 1 charge, so the cation must be Fe2.
The name is iron(II) perchlorate. (The common name is ferrous perchlorate.)
(b) Sodium is Na; sulfite is SO32. Therefore, two Na ions balance one SO32 ion.
The formula is Na2SO3. (c) Ba2 is barium; OH is hydroxide. There are eight (octa-)
water molecules in each formula unit. The name is barium hydroxide octahydrate.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.10 Give the systematic names for the formulas or the
formulas for the names of the following compounds:
(a) Cupric nitrate trihydrate (b) Zinc hydroxide (c) LiCN

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.11 Recognizing Incorrect Names and Formulas ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples
Library
of Ionic Compounds
PROBLEM Something is wrong with the second part of each statement. Provide the correct
name or formula.
(a) Ba(C2H3O2)2 is called barium diacetate.
(b) Sodium sulfide has the formula (Na)2SO3.
(c) Iron(II) sulfate has the formula Fe2(SO4)3.
(d) Cesium carbonate has the formula Cs2(CO3).
SOLUTION (a) The charge of the Ba2 ion must be balanced by two C2H3O2 ions, so the
prefix di- is unnecessary. For ionic compounds, we do not indicate the number of ions
with numerical prefixes. The correct name is barium acetate.
(b) Two mistakes occur here. The sodium ion is monatomic, so it does not require paren-
theses. The sulfide ion is S2, not SO32 (called “sulfite”). The correct formula is Na2S.
(c) The Roman numeral refers to the charge of the ion, not the number of ions in the for-
mula. Fe2 is the cation, so it requires one SO42 to balance its charge. The correct for-
mula is FeSO4.
(d) Parentheses are not required when only one polyatomic ion of a kind is present. The
correct formula is Cs2CO3.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.11 State why the second part of each statement is incor-
rect, and correct it:
(a) Ammonium phosphate is (NH3)4PO4.
(b) Aluminum hydroxide is AlOH3.
(c) Mg(HCO3)2 is manganese(II) carbonate.
(d) Cr(NO3)3 is chromic(III) nitride.
(e) Ca(NO2)2 is cadmium nitrate.
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70 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

Acid Names from Anion Names Acids are an important group of hydrogen-
containing compounds that have been used in chemical reactions since before
alchemical times. In the laboratory, acids are typically used in water solution.
When naming them and writing their formulas, we consider them as anions con-
nected to the number of hydrogen ions (H) needed for charge neutrality. The
two common types of acids are binary acids and oxoacids:
1. Binary acid solutions form when certain gaseous compounds dissolve in water.
For example, when gaseous hydrogen chloride (HCl) dissolves in water, it
forms a solution whose name consists of the following parts:
Prefix hydro-  nonmetal root  suffix -ic  separate word acid
hydro  chlor  ic  acid
or hydrochloric acid. This naming pattern holds for many compounds in which
hydrogen combines with an anion that has an -ide suffix.
2. Oxoacid names are similar to those of the oxoanions, except for two suffix
changes:
• -ate in the anion becomes -ic in the acid
• -ite in the anion becomes -ous in the acid
The oxoanion prefixes hypo- and per- are kept. Thus,
BrO4 is perbromate, and HBrO4 is perbromic acid
IO2 is iodite, and HIO2 is iodous acid

ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.12 Determining Names and Formulas of Anions
Library and Acids
PROBLEM Name the following anions and give the names and formulas of the acids
derived from them: (a) Br; (b) IO3; (c) CN; (d) SO42; (e) NO2.
SOLUTION (a) The anion is bromide; the acid is hydrobromic acid, HBr.
(b) The anion is iodate; the acid is iodic acid, HIO3.
(c) The anion is cyanide; the acid is hydrocyanic acid, HCN.
(d) The anion is sulfate; the acid is sulfuric acid, H2SO4. (In this case, the suffix is
added to the element name sulfur, not to the root, sulf-.)
(e) The anion is nitrite; the acid is nitrous acid, HNO2.
COMMENT We added two H ions to the sulfate ion to obtain sulfuric acid because SO42
has a 2 charge.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.12 Write the formula for the name or name for the for-
mula of each acid: (a) chloric acid; (b) HF; (c) acetic acid; (d) sulfurous acid; (e) HBrO.

Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds

Binary covalent compounds are formed by the combination of two elements, usu-
ally nonmetals. Some are so familiar, such as ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4), and
water (H2O), we use their common names, but most are named in a systematic way:
1. The element with the lower group number in the periodic table is the first word
in the name; the element with the higher group number is the second word.
(Exception: When the compound contains oxygen and any of the halogens
chlorine, bromine, and iodine, the halogen is named first.)
2. If both elements are in the same group, the one with the higher period num-
ber is named first.
3. The second element is named with its root and the suffix -ide.
4. Covalent compounds have Greek numerical prefixes (see Table 2.6) to indicate
the number of atoms of each element in the compound. The first word has a
prefix only when more than one atom of the element is present; the second
word usually has a numerical prefix.
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2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 71

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.13 Determining Names and Formulas of Binary ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples
Covalent Compounds Library

PROBLEM (a) What is the formula of carbon disulfide?

(b) What is the name of PCl5?
(c) Give the name and formula of the compound whose molecules each consist of two
N atoms and four O atoms.
SOLUTION (a) The prefix di- means “two.” The formula is CS2.
(b) P is the symbol for phosphorus; there are five chlorine atoms, which is indicated by
the prefix penta-. The name is phosphorus pentachloride.
(c) Nitrogen (N) comes first in the name (lower group number). The compound is
dinitrogen tetraoxide, N2O4.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.13 Give the name or formula for (a) SO3; (b) SiO2;
(c) dinitrogen monoxide; (d) selenium hexafluoride.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.14 Recognizing Incorrect Names and Formulas ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples
Library
of Binary Covalent Compounds
PROBLEM Explain what is wrong with the name or formula in the second part of each
statement and correct it: (a) SF4 is monosulfur pentafluoride. (b) Dichlorine heptaoxide is
Cl2O6. (c) N2O3 is dinitrotrioxide.
SOLUTION (a) There are two mistakes. Mono- is not needed if there is only one atom of
the first element, and the prefix for four is tetra-, not penta-. The correct name is
sulfur tetrafluoride.
(b) The prefix hepta- indicates seven, not six. The correct formula is Cl2O7.
(c) The full name of the first element is needed, and a space separates the two element ARIS Presentation Center, Tables Library
names. The correct name is dinitrogen trioxide.
Table 2.7 The First 10 Straight-
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.14 Explain what is wrong with the second part of each Chain Alkanes
statement and correct it: (a) S2Cl2 is disulfurous dichloride. (b) Nitrogen monoxide is N2O.
(c) BrCl3 is trichlorine bromide. Name (Formula) Model

Methane (CH4)
Ethane (C2H6)
An Introduction to Naming Organic Compounds
Propane (C3H8)
Organic compounds typically have complex structural formulas that consist of
chains, branches, and/or rings of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms and, Butane (C4H10)
often, to atoms of oxygen, nitrogen, and a few other elements. At this point, we’ll
Pentane (C5H12)
look at one or two basic principles for naming them. Much more on the rules of
organic nomenclature appears in Chapter 15. Hexane (C6H14)
Hydrocarbons, the simplest type of organic compound, contain only carbon
and hydrogen. Alkanes are the simplest type of hydrocarbon; many function as Heptane (C7H16)
important fuels, such as methane, propane, butane, and the mixture of alkanes in Octane (C8H18)
gasoline. The simplest alkanes to name are the straight-chain alkanes because the
carbon chains have no branches. Alkanes are named with a root, based on Nonane (C9H20)
the number of C atoms in the chain, followed by the suffix -ane. Table 2.7 gives Decane (C10H22)
the names, molecular formulas, and space-filling models (discussed shortly) of the
first 10 straight-chain alkanes. Note that the roots of the four smallest ones are
new, but those for the larger ones are the same as the Greek prefixes shown in
Table 2.6. H
Alkanes (and other organic compounds) with branches have a prefix in the C
name as well. The prefix names the length of the branch and numbers the carbon
atom in the main chain that the branch is attached to. A prefix consists of a 4 2
3 1
root plus the ending -yl. Thus, for example, the compound with a one-carbon
(“meth”) branch attached to the second carbon of the main chain of butane is
2-methylbutane, where “2-methyl” is the prefix (see margin). Ball-and-stick model of 2-methylbutane
ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library
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72 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

O Organic compounds other than alkanes have names derived from a particular
region of the molecule, called the functional group, which consists of one or a
few atoms bonded in a specific way. The functional group determines how the
compound reacts. The alcohol functional group is a hydroxyl group, O±H, in
place of one of the H atoms in the hydrocarbon; an amine has an amino group,
2-butanol
±NH2; a carboxylic acid has a carboxyl group, ±COOH; and so forth. Each
functional group has its own suffix. Thus, the compound with a hydroxyl group
attached to the second carbon in butane is called 2-butanol (see margin); the com-
N pound with an amino group bonded to a two-carbon chain is ethanamine; the
compound with a carboxyl group bonded to a four-carbon chain is pentanoic acid
(the C of the carboxyl group counts as one of the carbons). We’ll examine how
ethanamine
the different functional groups react in Chapter 15.

Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas

In Section 2.5, we calculated the atomic mass of an element. Using the periodic
table and the formula of a compound to see the number of atoms of each ele-
ment, we calculate the molecular mass (also called molecular weight) of a for-
pentanoic acid mula unit of the compound as the sum of the atomic masses:
ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library Molecular mass  sum of atomic masses (2.3)
The molecular mass of a water molecule (using atomic masses to four significant
Organic chemistry application
figures from the periodic table) is
Molecular mass of H2O  (2  atomic mass of H)  (1  atomic mass of O)
 (2  1.008 amu)  16.00 amu  18.02 amu
Ionic compounds are treated the same, but because they do not consist of mol-
ecules, we use the term formula mass for an ionic compound. To calculate its
formula mass, the number of atoms of each element inside the parentheses is mul-
tiplied by the subscript outside the parentheses. For barium nitrate, Ba(NO3)2,
Formula mass of Ba(NO3 ) 2
 (1  atomic mass of Ba)  (2  atomic mass of N)  (6  atomic mass of O)
 137.3 amu  (2  14.01 amu)  (6  16.00 amu)  261.3 amu
Atomic, not ionic, masses are used because electron loss equals electron gain in
the compound, so electron mass is balanced. In the next two problems, the name
or molecular depiction is used to find a compound’s formula and molecular mass.

ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples

Library
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.15 Calculating the Molecular Mass of a Compound
PROBLEM Using data in the periodic table, calculate the molecular (or formula) mass of:
(a) Tetraphosphorus trisulfide (b) Ammonium nitrate
PLAN We first write the formula, then multiply the number of atoms (or ions) of each ele-
ment by its atomic mass, and find the sum.
SOLUTION (a) The formula is P4S3.
Molecular mass  (4  atomic mass of P)  (3  atomic mass of S)
 (4  30.97 amu)  (3  32.07 amu)  220.09 amu
(b) The formula is NH4NO3. We count the total number of N atoms even though they
belong to different ions:
Formula mass
 (2  atomic mass of N)  (4  atomic mass of H)  (3  atomic mass of O)
 (2  14.01 amu)  (4  1.008 amu)  (3  16.00 amu)  80.05 amu
CHECK You can often find large errors by rounding atomic masses to the nearest 5 and
adding: (a) (4  30)  (3  30)  210  220.09. The sum has two decimal places
because the atomic masses have two. (b) (2  15)  4  (3  15)  79  80.05.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.15 What is the formula and molecular (or formula) mass
of each of the following compounds: (a) hydrogen peroxide; (b) cesium chloride; (c) sul-
furic acid; (d) potassium sulfate?
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2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 73

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.16 Using Molecular Depictions to Determine ARIS Presentation Center, Worked Examples
Formula, Name, and Mass Library

PROBLEM Each circle contains a representation of a binary compound. Determine its for-
mula, name, and molecular (formula) mass.
(a) (b)
Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center,
Art Library
sodium
fluorine
nitrogen

PLAN Each of the compounds contains only two elements, so to find the formula, we find
the simplest whole-number ratio of one atom to the other. Then we determine the name and
formula (see Sample Problems 2.7–2.9 and 2.13) and the mass (see Sample Problem 2.15).
SOLUTION (a) There is one brown (sodium) for each green (fluorine), so the formula is
NaF. A metal and nonmetal form an ionic compound, in which the metal is named first:
sodium fluoride.
Formula mass  (1  atomic mass of Na)  (1  atomic mass of F)
 22.99 amu  19.00 amu  41.99 amu
(b) There are three green (fluorine) for each blue (nitrogen), so the formula is NF3.
Two nonmetals form a covalent compound. Nitrogen has a lower group number, so it is
named first: nitrogen trifluoride.
Molecular mass  (1  atomic mass of N)  (3  atomic mass of F)
 14.01 amu  (3  19.00 amu)  71.01 amu
CHECK (a) For binary ionic compounds, we predict ionic charges from the periodic table
(see Figure 2.13). Na forms a 1 ion, and F forms a 1 ion, so the charges balance with
one Na per F. Also, ionic compounds are solids, consistent with the picture. (b) Cova-
lent compounds often occur as individual molecules, as in the picture. Rounding in (a)
gives 25  20  45; in (b), we get 15  (3  20)  75, so there are no large errors.
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.16 Each circle contains a representation of a binary
compound. Determine its name, formula, and molecular (formula) mass.
(a) (b )

sodium
oxygen
nitrogen

The Gallery on the next page shows some of the ways that chemists picture
molecules and the enormous range of molecular sizes.

Section Summary
Chemical formulas describe the simplest atom ratio (empirical formula), actual atom
number (molecular formula), and atom arrangement (structural formula) of one unit of
a compound. • An ionic compound is named with cation first and anion second. For
metals that can form more than one ion, the charge is shown with a Roman numeral.
• Oxoanions have suffixes, and sometimes prefixes, attached to the root of the ele-
ment name to indicate the number of oxygen atoms. • Names of hydrates give the
number of associated water molecules with a numerical prefix. • Acid names are
based on anion names. • Covalent compounds have as the first word of the name
the element that is farther left or lower down in the periodic table, and prefixes show
the numbers of each atom. • The molecular (or formula) mass of a compound is the
sum of the atomic masses in the formula. • Molecules are three-dimensional objects
that range in size from H2 to biological and synthetic macromolecules.
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Picturing Molecules
The most exciting thing about learning chemistry is training Chemical formulas show only the
H2O
your mind to imagine a molecular world, one filled with tiny relative numbers of atoms.
objects of various shapes. Molecules are depicted in a variety Electron-dot and bond-line formulas H:O:H
of useful ways, as shown at right for the water molecule: show a bond between atoms as
either a pair of dots or a line. H– O –H
All molecules are minute, with their relative sizes
depending on composition. A water molecule is small Ball-and-stick models show atoms
because it consists of only three atoms. Many air pollu- as spheres and bonds as sticks, with
tants, such as ozone, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen accurate angles and relative sizes,
dioxide, also consist of small molecules. but distances are exaggerated.

Carbon monoxide C O Space-filling models are accurately

O (CO, 28.01 amu), scaled-up versions of molecules, but
O O
toxic component they do not show bonds.
of car exhaust and
cigarette smoke. Electron-density models show the
Ozone (O3, 48.00 amu)
contributes to smog; Nitrogen dioxide (NO2, 46.01 amu)
ball-and-stick model within the
natural component of forms from nitrogen monoxide and space-filling shape and color the re-
stratosphere that absorbs contributes to smog and acid rain. gions of high (red) and low (blue)
harmful solar radiation. electron charge.
N
O O

Many household chemicals, such as butane, acetic acid,

and aspirin, consist of somewhat larger molecules. The
Butane (C4H10, biologically essential molecule heme is larger still.
58.12 amu), fuel for
cigarette lighters H H H H
H O
and camping
stoves. H
C C C C
H
H C C
O
H H H H
H H
H
Acetic acid (CH3COOH,
O O 60.05 amu), component
C H of vinegar.
H
H C O C
C C C
H
C C O
H C H

H
Aspirin (C9H8O4,
180.15 amu), most
common pain reliever
in the world.

Heme (C34H32FeN4O4, 616.49 amu),

part of the blood protein hemoglobin,
which carries oxygen through the body.

Very large molecules, called macromolecules, can

be synthetic, like nylon, or natural, like DNA, and
typically consist of thousands of atoms.

Nylon-66 ( 15,000 amu), Deoxyribonucleic acid

relatively small, synthetic (DNA, 10,000,000 amu),
macromolecule used to cellular macromolecule that
make textiles and tires. contains genetic information.
74
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2.9 Mixtures: Classification and Separation 75

2.9 MIXTURES: CLASSIFICATION AND SEPARATION

Although chemists pay a great deal of attention to pure substances, this form of
matter almost never occurs around us. In the natural world, matter usually occurs
as mixtures. A sample of clean air, for example, consists of many elements and
compounds physically mixed together, including oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), car-
bon dioxide (CO2), the six noble gases [Group 8A(18)], and water vapor (H2O).
The oceans are complex mixtures of dissolved ions and covalent substances,
including Na, Mg2, Cl, SO42, O2, CO2, and of course H2O. Rocks and soils
are mixtures of numerous compounds—such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), S8
silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), and iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3)—
perhaps a few elements (gold, silver, and carbon in the form of diamond), and
petroleum and coal, which are complex mixtures themselves. Living things con-
tain thousands of substances: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and Fe
many simpler ionic and covalent compounds.
There are two broad classes of mixtures. A heterogeneous mixture has one A

or more visible boundaries between the components. Thus, its composition is not
uniform. Many rocks are heterogeneous, showing individual grains and flecks of
different minerals. In some cases, as in milk and blood, the boundaries can be
seen only with a microscope. A homogeneous mixture has no visible boundaries
because the components are mixed as individual atoms, ions, and molecules. Thus,
its composition is uniform, unvarying from one region to another. A mixture of
sugar dissolved in water is homogeneous, for example, because the sugar mol-
ecules and water molecules are uniformly intermingled on the molecular level.
We have no way to tell visually whether an object is a substance (element or com-
pound) or a homogeneous mixture.
A homogeneous mixture is also called a solution. Although we usually think
S2
of solutions as liquid, they can exist in all three physical states. For example, air
is a gaseous solution of mostly oxygen and nitrogen molecules, and wax is a solid
solution of several fatty substances. Solutions in water, called aqueous solutions, Fe2
are especially important in chemistry and comprise a major portion of the envi-
ronment and of all organisms. B
Recall that mixtures differ fundamentally from compounds in three ways:
(1) the proportions of the components can vary; (2) the individual properties of Figure 2.20 The distinction between
the components are observable; and (3) the components can be separated by phys- mixtures and compounds. A, A mixture
of iron and sulfur can be separated with a
ical means. In some cases, if we apply enough energy to the components of the magnet because only the iron is mag-
mixture, they react with each other chemically and form a compound, after which netic. The blow-up shows separate
their individual properties are no longer observable. Figure 2.20 shows such a regions of the two elements. B, After
case with a mixture of iron and sulfur. strong heating, the compound iron(II) sul-
In order to investigate the properties of substances, chemists have devised fide forms, which is no longer magnetic.
The blow-up shows the structure of the
many procedures for separating a mixture into its component elements and com- compound, in which there are no sepa-
pounds. Indeed, the laws and models of chemistry could never have been formu- rate regions of the elements.
lated without this ability. Many of Dalton’s critics, who thought they had found ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library
compounds with varying composition, were unknowingly studying mixtures! The
Tools of the Laboratory essay on the next two pages describes some of the more
common laboratory separation methods.

Section Summary
Heterogeneous mixtures have visible boundaries between the components. • Homo-
geneous mixtures have no visible boundaries because mixing occurs at the molecular
level. A solution is a homogeneous mixture and can occur in any physical state. • Com-
ponents of mixtures (unlike those of compounds) can have variable proportions, can be
separated physically, and retain their properties. • Common physical separation
processes include filtration, crystallization, extraction, chromatography, and distillation.
siL48593_ch02_040-088 8:7:07 08:39pm Page 76 nishant-13 ve403:MHQY042:siL5ch02:

Tools of the Laboratory

Basic Separation Techniques
ome of the most challenging and time-consuming laboratory

S procedures involve separating mixtures and purifying the

components. Several common separation techniques are de-
scribed here. All of these methods depend on the physical proper-
1 Mixture is heated and volatile
ties of the substances in the mixture; no chemical changes occur.
component vaporizes
ARIS Presentation Center, Photo Library Thermometer
Filtration separates the com-
ponents of a mixture on the basis of 2 Vapors in contact
with cool glass
differences in particle size. It is condense to form
used most often to separate a liquid pure liquid
(smaller particles) from a solid distillate
(larger particles). Figure B2.3
shows simple filtration of a solid re-
action product. In vacuum filtra-
tion, reduced pressure within the
flask speeds the flow of the liquid Distilling Water-cooled
flask condenser
through the filter. Filtration is a key
step in the purification of the tap
water you drink.

Figure B2.3 Filtration.

Crystallization is based on Water out Water in
differences in solubility. The solu- to sink
bility of a substance is the amount
that dissolves in a fixed volume of
solvent at a given temperature. The
result shown in Figure B2.4 applies 3 Distillate collected
the fact that many substances are in separate flask
more soluble in hot solvent than
in cold. The purified compound
crystallized as the solution was
cooled. Key substances in com-
puter chips and other electronic
Figure B2.5 Distillation. ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library
devices are purified by a type of
crystallization.
Figure B2.4 Crystallization.
Distillation separates components through differences in 1 Hexane shaken with water solution
volatility, the tendency of a substance to become a gas. Ether, for of plant material extracts some
example, is more volatile than water, which is much more volatile dissolved substances
than sodium chloride. The simple distillation apparatus shown in
Figure B2.5 is used to separate components with large differences Hexane layer
in volatility, such as water from dissolved ionic compounds. As 2 Upon standing, two layers
Water layer separate
the mixture boils, the vapor is richer in the more volatile compo-
nent, which is condensed and collected separately. Separating
components with small volatility differences requires many
vaporization-condensation steps (discussed in Chapter 13).

Extraction is also based on differences in solubility. In a

typical procedure, a natural (often plant or animal) material is
ground in a blender with a solvent that extracts (dissolves) solu- 3 Stopcock is opened to drain bottom
layer, and top layer is poured from
ble compound(s) embedded in insoluble material. This extract is separatory funnel
separated further by the addition of a second solvent that does not
dissolve in the first. After shaking in a separatory funnel, some Figure B2.6 Extraction. ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library
components are extracted into the new solvent. Figure B2.6
shows the extraction of plant pigments from water into hexane,
an organic solvent.
76
siL48593_ch02_040-088 8:7:07 08:39pm Page 77 nishant-13 ve403:MHQY042:siL5ch02:

Chromatography is a third technique based on differences in

solubility. The mixture is dissolved in a gas or liquid called the
mobile phase, and the components are separated as this phase 1 Ink mixture is placed
moves over a solid (or viscous liquid) surface called the stationary Solvent carefully on stationary
phase. A component with low solubility in the stationary phase (mobile phase
phase)
spends less time there, thus moving faster than a component that
is highly soluble in that phase. Figure B2.7 depicts the separation 2 Fresh solvent flows
through the column
of a mixture of pigments in ink.
Many types of chromatography are used to separate a wide Solvent 3 Components move
variety of substances, from simple gases to biological macromol- through column at
ecules. In gas-liquid chromatography (GLC), the mobile phase is Stationary different rates
an inert gas, such as helium, that carries the previously vaporized phase packed
in column 4 The component
components into a long tube that contains the stationary phase with the greatest
(Figure B2.8, part A). The components emerge separately and preference for the mobile
reach a detector to create a chromatogram. A typical chro- phase moves fastest
matogram has numerous peaks of specific position and height,
1 2 3 Later time 1 2 3
each of which represents the amount of a given component
(Figure B2.8, part B).
The principle of high-performance (high-pressure) liquid Collecting flasks 5 Separated compo-
chromatography (HPLC) is very similar. However, in this tech- nents are collected
nique the mixture is not vaporized, so a more diverse group of Figure B2.7 Procedure for column as they emerge from
chromatography. column
components, which may include nonvolatile compounds, can be
separated (Figure B2.9). ARIS Presentation
20 Center, Art Library
18
16

Detector response
He gas He gas 14
12
10
Before interacting with the stationary phase 8
6
4
He gas He gas 2
0
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
A After interacting with the stationary phase B Time (minutes)

Figure B2.8 Principle of gas-liquid chromatography (GLC). A, The A component (red) that dissolves less readily than another (blue)
mobile phase (purple arrow) carries the sample mixture into a tube emerges from the tube sooner. B, A typical gas-liquid chromatogram
packed with the stationary phase (gray outline on yellow spheres), and of a complex mixture displays each component as a peak.
each component dissolves in the stationary phase to a different extent.
ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library

Figure B2.9 A high-

performance liquid
chromatograph.
ARIS Presentation
Center, Photo Library

77
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78 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

Chapter Perspective
An understanding of matter at the observable and atomic levels is the essence
of chemistry. In this chapter, you have learned how matter is classified in terms
of its composition and how it is named in words and formulas, which are major
steps toward that understanding. Figure 2.21 provides a visual review of many
key terms and ideas in this chapter. In Chapter 3, we explore one of the cen-
tral quantitative ideas in chemistry: how the observable amount of a substance
relates to the number of atoms, molecules, or ions that make it up.

MATTER
A
Anything that has mass and volume
Exists in three physical states: solid, liquid, gas

MIXTURES
Two or more elements or compounds in variable proportions
Components retain their properties

Heterogeneous Mixtures Homogeneous Mixtures (Solutions)

• Visible parts • No visible parts
• Differing regional composition • Same composition throughout

PHYSICAL
CHANGES
Filtration
Extraction
Distillation
Crystallization
Chromatography

PURE SUBSTANCES
T
Fixed composition throughout

Elements Compounds
• Composed of one type of atom • T
Two or more elements combined in
• Classified as metal, nonmetal, or fixed parts by mass
metalloid • Properties differ from those of
• Simplest type of matter that retains component elements
characteristic properties • Molecular mass is sum of atomic
• May occur as individual atoms or masses
as molecules
• Atomic mass is average
v of isotopic
masses weighted by abundance

CHEMICAL CHANGES

Atoms Ionic Compounds

• Protons (p+) and neutrons • Solids composed of cations
(n0) in tiny, massive, positive and anions
nucleus; number of p+ = • Ions arise through e– transfer
atomic number (Z ) from metal to nonmetal
• Electrons (e–) occupy
surrounding volume; Covalent Compounds
number of p+ = number of e– • Often consist of separate
molecules
• Atoms (usually nonmetals)
bonded by shared e– pairs

Figure 2.21 The classification of matter from a chemical point and compounds. Chemical changes are required to convert elements
of view. Mixtures are separated by physical changes into elements into compounds, and vice versa.

Transparency/ARIS Presentation Center, Art Library

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Chapter Review Guide 79

CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE The following sections provide many aids to help you study this chapter.
(Numbers in parentheses refer to pages, unless noted otherwise.)
Learning Objectives These are concepts and skills you should know after studying this chapter.
Relevant section and/or sample problem (SP) numbers Master These Skills
appear in parentheses. 1. Distinguishing elements, compounds, and mixtures at the
Understand These Concepts atomic scale (SP 2.1)
1. The defining characteristics of the three types of matter—ele- 2. Using the mass ratio of element to compound to find the mass
ment, compound, and mixture—on the macroscopic and atomic of an element in a compound (SP 2.2)
levels (2.1) 3. Visualizing the mass laws (SP 2.3)
2. The significance of the three mass laws—mass conservation, 4. Using atomic notation to express the subatomic makeup of an
definite composition, and multiple proportions (2.2) isotope (SP 2.4)
3. The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory and how it explains 5. Calculating an atomic mass from isotopic composition (SP 2.5)
the mass laws (2.3) 6. Predicting the monatomic ion formed from a main-group ele-
4. The major contribution of experiments by Thomson, Millikan, ment (SP 2.6)
and Rutherford concerning atomic structure (2.4) 7. Naming and writing the formula of an ionic compound formed
5. The structure of the atom, the main features of the subatomic from the ions in Tables 2.3 to 2.5 (SP 2.7–2.12, 2.16)
particles, and the importance of isotopes (2.5) 8. Naming and writing the formula of an inorganic binary co-
6. The format of the periodic table and general location and char- valent compound (SP 2.13, 2.14, 2.16)
acteristics of metals, metalloids, and nonmetals (2.6) 9. Calculating the molecular or formula mass of a compound
7. The essential features of ionic and covalent bonding and the (SP 2.15)
distinction between them (2.7)
8. The types of mixtures and their properties (2.9)

Key Terms These important terms appear in boldface in the chapter and are defined again in the Glossary.
Section 2.1 Section 2.4 period (57) molecular formula (65)
element (41) cathode ray (49) group (57) structural formula (65)
substance (41) nucleus (51) metal (58) formula unit (66)
molecule (42) Section 2.5 nonmetal (58) oxoanion (68)
compound (42) proton (p) (52) metalloid (semimetal) (58) hydrate (69)
mixture (42) neutron (n0) (52) Section 2.7 binary covalent compound
Section 2.2 electron (e) (52) ionic compound (60) (70)
law of mass conservation (44) atomic number (Z) (53) covalent compound (60) molecular mass (72)
law of definite (or constant) mass number (A) (53) chemical bond (60) formula mass (72)
composition (44) atomic symbol (53) ion (60) Section 2.9
fraction by mass (mass isotope (53) binary ionic compound (60) heterogeneous mixture (75)
fraction) (44) atomic mass unit (amu) (54) cation (60) homogeneous mixture (75)
percent by mass (mass dalton (Da) (54) anion (60) solution (75)
percent, mass %) (44) mass spectrometry (54) monatomic ion (60) aqueous solution (75)
law of multiple proportions isotopic mass (54) covalent bond (62) filtration (76)
(46) atomic mass (54) polyatomic ion (63) crystallization (76)
Section 2.3 Section 2.6 Section 2.8 distillation (76)
atom (47) periodic table of the elements chemical formula (64) volatility (76)
(57) empirical formula (64) extraction (76)
chromatography (77)
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80 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

Key Equations and Relationships Numbered and screened concepts are listed for you to refer to or memorize.
2.1 Finding the mass of an element in a given mass of compound 2.2 Calculating the number of neutrons in an atom (53):
(45): Number of neutrons  mass number  atomic number
Mass of element in sample or NAZ
mass of element 2.3 Determining the molecular mass of a formula unit of a com-
 mass of compound in sample 
mass of compound pound (72):
Molecular mass  sum of atomic masses

Highlighted Figures and Tables These figures (F) and tables (T) provide a visual review of key ideas.
Entries in bold contain frequently used data. F2.14 Formation of a covalent bond between two H atoms (62)
F2.1 Elements, compounds, and mixtures on atomic scale (42) F2.18 Some common monatomic ions of the elements (65)
F2.7 General features of the atom (52) T2.3 Common monatomic ions (65)
T2.2 Properties of the three key subatomic particles (53) T2.4 Some metals that form more than one monatomic ion (67)
F2.9 The modern periodic table (58) T2.5 Common polyatomic ions (68)
F2.12 Factors that influence the strength of ionic bonding (61) T2.6 Numerical prefixes for hydrates and binary covalent com-
F2.13 The relationship of ions formed to the nearest noble gas (61) pounds (69)
F2.21 Classification of matter from a chemical point of view (78)

Brief Solutions to FOLLOW-UP PROBLEMS Compare your solutions to these calculation steps and answers.
2.1 There are two types of particles reacting (left circle), one with 2.10 (a) Cu(NO3)23H2O; (b) Zn(OH)2; (c) lithium cyanide
two blue atoms and the other with two orange, so the depiction 2.11 (a) (NH4)3PO4; ammonium is NH4 and phosphate is PO43.
shows a mixture of two elements. In the product (right circle), all (b) Al(OH)3; parentheses are needed around the polyatomic ion
the particles have one blue atom and one orange; this is a OH.
compound. (c) Magnesium hydrogen carbonate; Mg2 is magnesium and can
2.2 Mass (t) of pitchblende have only a 2 charge, so it does not need (II); HCO3 is hydro-
84.2 t pitchblende gen carbonate (or bicarbonate).
 2.3 t uranium   2.7 t pitchblende
71.4 t uranium (d) Chromium(III) nitrate; the -ic ending is not used with Roman
Mass (t) of oxygen numerals; NO3 is nitrate.
(84.2  71.4 t oxygen) (e) Calcium nitrite; Ca2 is calcium and NO2 is nitrite.
 2.7 t pitchblende   0.41 t oxygen 2.12 (a) HClO3; (b) hydrofluoric acid; (c) CH3COOH (or
84.2 t pitchblende
2.3 Sample B. Two bromine-fluorine compounds appear. In one, HC2H3O2); (d) H2SO3; (e) hypobromous acid
there are three fluorine atoms for each bromine; in the other, there 2.13 (a) Sulfur trioxide; (b) silicon dioxide; (c) N2O; (d) SeF6
is one fluorine for each bromine. Therefore, in the two com- 2.14 (a) Disulfur dichloride; the -ous suffix is not used.
pounds, the ratio of fluorines combining with one bromine is 3/1. (b) NO; the name indicates one nitrogen.
2.4 (a) 5p, 6n0, 5e; Q  B (c) Bromine trichloride; Br is in a higher period in Group 7A(17),
(b) 20p, 21n0, 20e; R  Ca so it is named first.
(c) 53p, 78n0, 53e; X  I 2.15 (a) H2O2, 34.02 amu; (b) CsCl, 168.4 amu; (c) H2SO4,
2.5 10.0129x  [11.0093(1  x)]  10.81; 0.9964x  0.1993; 98.09 amu; (d) K2SO4, 174.27 amu
x  0.2000 and 1  x  0.8000; % abundance of 10B  20.00%; 2.16 (a) Na2O. This is an ionic compound, so the name is sodium
% abundance of 11B  80.00% oxide.
2.6 (a) S2; (b) Rb; (c) Ba2 Formula mass
2.7 (a) Zinc [Group 2B(12)] and oxygen [Group 6A(16)]  (2  atomic mass of Na)  (1  atomic mass of O)
(b) Silver [Group 1B(11)] and bromine [Group 7A(17)]  (2  22.99 amu)  16.00 amu  61.98 amu
(c) Lithium [Group 1A(1)] and chlorine [Group 7A(17)] (b) NO2. This is a covalent compound, and N has the lower group
(d) Aluminum [Group 3A(13)] and sulfur [Group 6A(16)] number, so the name is nitrogen dioxide.
2.8 (a) ZnO; (b) AgBr; (c) LiCl; (d) Al2S3 Molecular mass
2.9 (a) PbO2; (b) copper(I) sulfide (cuprous sulfide); (c) iron(II)  (1  atomic mass of N)  (2  atomic mass of O)
bromide (ferrous bromide); (d) HgCl2  14.01 amu  (2  16.00 amu)  46.01 amu
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Problems 81

PROBLEMS
Problems with colored numbers are answered in Appendix E likely come from a common source. Do these street samples
and worked in detail in the Student Solutions Manual. consist of a compound, element, or mixture? Explain.
Problem sections match those in the text and provide the
numbers of relevant sample problems. Most offer Concept The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter
(Sample Problem 2.2)
Review Questions, Skill-Building Exercises (grouped in
pairs covering the same concept), and Problems in Context. Concept Review Questions
The Comprehensive Problems are based on material from • 2.11 Why was it necessary for separation techniques and methods
any section or previous chapter. of chemical analysis to be developed before the laws of definite
composition and multiple proportions could be formulated?
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic • 2.12 To which classes of matter—element, compound, and/or
Overview mixture—do the following apply: (a) law of mass conservation;
(Sample Problem 2.1) (b) law of definite composition; (c) law of multiple proportions?
Concept Review Questions • 2.13 In our modern view of matter and energy, is the law of mass
• 2.1 What is the key difference between an element and a com- conservation still relevant to chemical reactions? Explain.
pound? • 2.14 Identify the mass law that each of the following observations
• 2.2 List two differences between a compound and a mixture. demonstrates, and explain your reasoning:
• 2.3 Which of the following are pure substances? Explain. (a) A sample of potassium chloride from Chile contains the same
(a) Calcium chloride, used to melt ice on roads, consists of two percent by mass of potassium as one from Poland.
elements, calcium and chlorine, in a fixed mass ratio. (b) A flashbulb contains magnesium and oxygen before use and
(b) Sulfur consists of sulfur atoms combined into octatomic magnesium oxide afterward, but its mass does not change.
molecules. (c) Arsenic and oxygen form one compound that is 65.2 mass %
(c) Baking powder, a leavening agent, contains 26% to 30% arsenic and another that is 75.8 mass % arsenic.
sodium hydrogen carbonate and 30% to 35% calcium dihydro- • 2.15 Which of the following scenes illustrate(s) the fact that com-
gen phosphate by mass. pounds of chlorine (green) and oxygen (red) exhibit the law of
(d) Cytosine, a component of DNA, consists of H, C, N, and O multiple proportions? Name the compounds.
atoms bonded in a specific arrangement.
• 2.4 Classify each substance in Problem 2.3 as an element, com-
pound, or mixture, and explain your answers.
• 2.5 Explain the following statement: The smallest particles unique
to an element may be atoms or molecules.
• 2.6 Explain the following statement: The smallest particles unique
to a compound cannot be atoms.
• 2.7 Can the relative amounts of the components of a mixture vary?
A B C
Can the relative amounts of the components of a compound
vary? Explain.
•• 2.16 (a) Does the percent by mass of each element in a compound
Problems in Context depend on the amount of compound? Explain. (b) Does the mass
• 2.8 The tap water found in many areas of the United States leaves of each element in a compound depend on the amount of com-
white deposits when it evaporates. Is this tap water a mixture or pound? Explain.
a compound? Explain. • 2.17 Does the percent by mass of each element in a compound de-
• 2.9 Each scene below represents a mixture. Describe each one in pend on the amount of that element used to make the compound?
terms of the number of elements and/or compounds present. Explain.
(a) (b) (c) Skill-Building Exercises (grouped in similar pairs)
• 2.18 State the mass law(s) demonstrated by the following experi-
mental results, and explain your reasoning:
Experiment 1: A student heats 1.00 g of a blue compound and
obtains 0.64 g of a white compound and 0.36 g of a colorless gas.
Experiment 2: A second student heats 3.25 g of the same blue
compound and obtains 2.08 g of a white compound and 1.17 g of
a colorless gas.
• 2.19 State the mass law(s) demonstrated by the following experi-
• 2.10 Samples of illicit “street” drugs often contain an inactive
mental results, and explain your reasoning:
component, such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C). After obtaining a
Experiment 1: A student heats 1.27 g of copper and 3.50 g of iodine
sample of cocaine, government chemists calculate the mass of
to produce 3.81 g of a white compound; 0.96 g of iodine remains.
vitamin C per gram of drug sample, and use it to track the drug’s
Experiment 2: A second student heats 2.55 g of copper and 3.50 g
distribution. For example, if different samples of cocaine ob-
of iodine to form 5.25 g of a white compound, and 0.80 g of
tained on the streets of New York, Los Angeles, and Paris all
copper remains.
contain 0.6384 g of vitamin C per gram of sample, they very

Levels of Difficulty: • Easy •• Medium ••• Challenging This figure is available on the Presentation Center, within the art library.
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82 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

• 2.20 Fluorite, a mineral of calcium, is a compound of the metal • 2.31 Use Dalton’s theory to explain why potassium nitrate from
with fluorine. Analysis shows that a 2.76-g sample of fluorite India or Italy has the same mass percents of K, N, and O.
contains 1.42 g of calcium. Calculate the (a) mass of fluorine in
the sample; (b) mass fractions of calcium and fluorine in fluorite; The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model
(c) mass percents of calcium and fluorine in fluorite. Concept Review Questions
• 2.21 Galena, a mineral of lead, is a compound of the metal with • 2.32 Thomson was able to determine the mass/charge ratio of the
sulfur. Analysis shows that a 2.34-g sample of galena contains electron but not its mass. How did Millikan’s experiment allow
2.03 g of lead. Calculate the (a) mass of sulfur in the sample; determination of the electron’s mass?
(b) mass fractions of lead and sulfur in galena; (c) mass percents •• 2.33 The following charges on individual oil droplets were ob-
of lead and sulfur in galena. tained during an experiment similar to Millikan’s. Determine a
• 2.22 Magnesium oxide (MgO) forms when the metal burns in air. charge for the electron (in C, coulombs), and explain your an-
(a) If 1.25 g of MgO contains 0.754 g of Mg, what is the mass swer: 3.2041019 C; 4.8061019 C; 8.0101019 C;
ratio of magnesium to oxide? (b) How many grams of Mg are in 1.4421018 C.
•• 2.34 Describe Thomson’s model of the atom. How might it
534 g of MgO?
• 2.23 Zinc sulfide (ZnS) occurs in the zinc blende crystal structure. account for the production of cathode rays?
• 2.35 When Rutherford’s coworkers bombarded gold foil with 
(a) If 2.54 g of ZnS contains 1.70 g of Zn, what is the mass ratio
of zinc to sulfide? (b) How many kilograms of Zn are in 3.82 kg particles, they obtained results that overturned the existing
of ZnS? (Thomson) model of the atom. Explain.

• 2.24 A compound of copper and sulfur contains 88.39 g of metal The Atomic Theory Today
and 44.61 g of nonmetal. How many grams of copper are in (Sample Problems 2.4 and 2.5)
5264 kg of compound? How many grams of sulfur? Concept Review Questions
• 2.25 A compound of iodine and cesium contains 63.94 g of metal • 2.36 Define atomic number and mass number. Which can vary
and 61.06 g of nonmetal. How many grams of cesium are in without changing the identity of the element?
38.77 g of compound? How many grams of iodine? • 2.37 Choose the correct answer. The difference between the mass
• 2.26 Show, with calculations, how the following data illustrate the number of an isotope and its atomic number is (a) directly
law of multiple proportions: related to the identity of the element; (b) the number of electrons;
Compound 1: 47.5 mass % sulfur and 52.5 mass % chlorine (c) the number of neutrons; (d) the number of isotopes.
Compound 2: 31.1 mass % sulfur and 68.9 mass % chlorine • 2.38 Even though several elements have only one naturally
• 2.27 Show, with calculations, how the following data illustrate the occurring isotope and all atomic nuclei have whole numbers of
law of multiple proportions: protons and neutrons, no atomic mass is a whole number. Use
Compound 1: 77.6 mass % xenon and 22.4 mass % fluorine the data from Table 2.2 to explain this fact.
Compound 2: 63.3 mass % xenon and 36.7 mass % fluorine Skill-Building Exercises (grouped in similar pairs)
• 2.39 Argon has three naturally occurring isotopes, 36Ar, 38Ar, and
Problems in Context 40
Ar. What is the mass number of each? How many protons,
• 2.28 Dolomite is a carbonate of magnesium and calcium. Analysis neutrons, and electrons are present in each?
shows that 7.81 g of dolomite contains 1.70 g of Ca. Calculate the • 2.40 Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl.
mass percent of Ca in dolomite. On the basis of the mass percent What is the mass number of each isotope? How many protons,
of Ca, and neglecting all other factors, which is the richer source neutrons, and electrons are present in each?
of Ca, dolomite or fluorite (see Problem 2.20)?
• 2.29 The mass percent of sulfur in a sample of coal is a key factor •• 2.41 Do both members of the following pairs have the same
in the environmental impact of the coal because the sulfur com- number of protons? Neutrons? Electrons?
bines with oxygen when the coal is burned and the oxide can (a) 168O and 178O (b) 40 41
18Ar and 19K (c) 60 60
27Co and 28Ni
then be incorporated into acid rain. Which of the following coals Which pair(s) consist(s) of atoms with the same Z value? N
would have the smallest environmental impact? value? A value?
•• 2.42 Do both members of the following pairs have the same num-
Mass (g) of Mass (g) of ber of protons? Neutrons? Electrons?
Sample Sulfur in Sample (a) 31H and 32He (b) 146C and 157N (c) 199F and 189F
Coal A 378 11.3 Which pair(s) consist(s) of atoms with the same Z value? N
Coal B 495 19.0 value? A value?
Coal C 675 20.6 • 2.43 Write the ZAX notation for each atomic depiction:

(a) (b) (c)

Dalton’s Atomic Theory 18e– 25e– 47e–
(Sample Problem 2.3)
18p+ 25p+ 47p+
Concept Review Questions 20n0 30n0 62n0
• 2.30 Which of Dalton’s postulates about atoms are inconsistent
with later observations? Do these inconsistencies mean that
Dalton was wrong? Is Dalton’s model still useful? Explain.

Environmental: 2.29
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Problems 83

A
• 2.44 Write the Z X notation for each atomic depiction: • 2.58 Fill in the blanks:
(a) The symbol and atomic number of the heaviest alkaline earth
(a) (b) (c)
metal are and .
6e– 40e– 28e– (b) The symbol and atomic number of the lightest metalloid in
6p+ 40p+ 28p+ Group 4A(14) are and .
7n0 50n0 33n0 (c) Group 1B(11) consists of the coinage metals. The symbol
and atomic mass of the coinage metal whose atoms have the
fewest electrons are and .
(d) The symbol and atomic mass of the halogen in Period 4 are
• 2.45 Draw atomic depictions similar to those in Problem 2.43 for and .
(a) 48 79 11
22Ti; (b) 34Se; (c) 5B.
• 2.59 Fill in the blanks:
• 2.46 Draw atomic depictions similar to those in Problem 2.43 for (a) The symbol and atomic number of the heaviest nonradioac-
(a) 207 9 75
82Pb; (b) 4Be; (c) 33As.
tive noble gas are and .
(b) The symbol and group number of the Period 5 transition ele-
• 2.47 Gallium has two naturally occurring isotopes, 69Ga (isotopic ment whose atoms have the fewest protons are
mass 68.9256 amu, abundance 60.11%) and 71Ga (isotopic mass and .
70.9247 amu, abundance 39.89%). Calculate the atomic mass of (c) The elements in Group 6A(16) are sometimes called the
gallium. chalcogens. The symbol and atomic number of the first metallic
• 2.48 Magnesium has three naturally occurring isotopes, 24Mg chalcogen are and .
(isotopic mass 23.9850 amu, abundance 78.99%), 25Mg (iso- (d) The symbol and number of protons of the Period 4 alkali
topic mass 24.9858 amu, abundance 10.00%), and 26Mg metal atom are and .
(isotopic mass 25.9826 amu, abundance 11.01%). Calculate the
atomic mass of magnesium. Compounds: Introduction to Bonding
•• 2.49 Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes, 35Cl (isotopic (Sample Problem 2.6)
mass 34.9689 amu) and 37Cl (isotopic mass 36.9659 amu). If Concept Review Questions
chlorine has an atomic mass of 35.4527 amu, what is the percent • 2.60 Describe the type and nature of the bonding that occurs be-
abundance of each isotope? tween reactive metals and nonmetals.
•• 2.50 Copper has two naturally occurring isotopes, 63Cu (isotopic • 2.61 Describe the type and nature of the bonding that often occurs
mass 62.9396 amu) and 65Cu (isotopic mass 64.9278 amu). If between two nonmetals.
copper has an atomic mass of 63.546 amu, what is the percent • 2.62 How can ionic compounds be neutral if they consist of posi-
abundance of each isotope? tive and negative ions?
• 2.63 Given that the ions in LiF and in MgO are of similar size,
Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table which compound has stronger ionic bonding? Use Coulomb’s
law in your explanation.
Concept Review Questions • 2.64 Are molecules present in a sample of BaF2? Explain.
•• 2.51 How can iodine (Z  53) have a higher atomic number yet a • 2.65 Are ions present in a sample of P4O6? Explain.
lower atomic mass than tellurium (Z  52)? • 2.66 The monatomic ions of Groups 1A(1) and 7A(17) are all
• 2.52 Correct each of the following statements: singly charged. In what major way do they differ? Why?
(a) In the modern periodic table, the elements are arranged in • 2.67 Describe the formation of solid magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
order of increasing atomic mass. from large numbers of magnesium and chlorine atoms.
(b) Elements in a period have similar chemical properties. • 2.68 Describe the formation of solid potassium sulfide (K2S) from
(c) Elements can be classified as either metalloids or nonmetals. large numbers of potassium and sulfur atoms.
• 2.53 What class of elements lies along the “staircase” line in the • 2.69 Does potassium nitrate (KNO3) incorporate ionic bonding,
periodic table? How do their properties compare with those of covalent bonding, or both? Explain.
metals and nonmetals? Skill-Building Exercises (grouped in similar pairs)
• 2.54 What are some characteristic properties of elements to the
• 2.70 What monatomic ions do potassium (Z  19) and iodine
left of the elements along the “staircase”? To the right? (Z  53) form?
• 2.55 The elements in Groups 1A(1) and 7A(17) are all quite reac-
• 2.71 What monatomic ions do barium (Z  56) and selenium
tive. What is a major difference between them? (Z  34) form?
Skill-Building Exercises (grouped in similar pairs) • 2.72 For each ionic depiction, give the name of the parent atom, its
• 2.56 Give the name, atomic symbol, and group number of the ele- mass number, and its group and period numbers:
ment with the following Z value, and classify it as a metal, met-
alloid, or nonmetal: (a) (b) (c)
10e– 10e– 18e–
(a) Z  32 (b) Z  15 (c) Z  2 (d) Z  3 (e) Z  42
• 2.57 Give the name, atomic symbol, and group number of the 8p+ 9p+ 20p+
element with the following Z value, and classify it as a metal, 9n0 10n0 20n0
metalloid, or nonmetal:
(a) Z  33 (b) Z  20 (c) Z  35 (d) Z  19 (e) Z  13
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84 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

• 2.73 For each ionic depiction, give the name of the parent atom, its •• 2.89 Give the name and formula of the compound formed from the
mass number, and its group and period numbers: following elements:
(a) (b) (c) (a) 37Q and 35R (b) 8Q and 13R (c) 20Q and 53R
36e– 10e– 36e– • 2.90 Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas
35p+ 7p+ 37p+
for the names: (a) tin(IV) chloride; (b) FeBr3; (c) cuprous
44n0 8n0 48n0 bromide; (d) Mn2O3.
• 2.91 Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas
for the names: (a) Na2HPO4; (b) potassium carbonate dihydrate;
(c) NaNO2; (d) ammonium perchlorate.
•• 2.74 An ionic compound forms when lithium (Z  3) reacts with • 2.92 Give the systematic names for the formulas or the
oxygen (Z  8). If a sample of the compound contains 8.41021 formulas for the names: (a) CoO; (b) mercury(I) chloride;
lithium ions, how many oxide ions does it contain? (c) Pb(C2H3O2)23H2O; (d) chromic oxide.
•• 2.75 An ionic compound forms when calcium (Z  20) reacts with • 2.93 Give the systematic names for the formulas or the
iodine (Z  53). If a sample of the compound contains 7.41021 formulas for the names: (a) Sn(SO3)2; (b) potassium dichromate;
calcium ions, how many iodide ions does it contain? (c) FeCO3; (d) copper(II) nitrate.
• 2.76 The radii of the sodium and potassium ions are 102 pm and • 2.94 Correct each of the following formulas:
138 pm, respectively. Which compound has stronger ionic (a) Barium oxide is BaO2.
attractions, sodium chloride or potassium chloride? (b) Iron(II) nitrate is Fe(NO3)3.
• 2.77 The radii of the lithium and magnesium ions are 76 pm and (c) Magnesium sulfide is MnSO3.
72 pm, respectively. Which compound has stronger ionic • 2.95 Correct each of the following names:
attractions, lithium oxide or magnesium oxide? (a) CuI is cobalt(II) iodide.
(b) Fe(HSO4)3 is iron(II) sulfate.
Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses (c) MgCr2O7 is magnesium dichromium heptaoxide.
(Sample Problems 2.7 to 2.16)
• 2.96 Give the name and formula for the acid derived from each of
Concept Review Questions the following anions:
• 2.78 What is the difference between an empirical formula and a (a) hydrogen sulfate (b) IO3 (c) cyanide (d) HS
molecular formula? Can they ever be the same? • 2.97 Give the name and formula for the acid derived from each of
• 2.79 How is a structural formula similar to a molecular formula? the following anions:
How is it different? (a) perchlorate (b) NO3 (c) bromite (d) F
•• 2.80 Consider a mixture of 10 billion O2 molecules and 10 billion
H2 molecules. In what way is this mixture similar to a sample • 2.98 Many chemical names are similar at first glance. Give the for-
containing 10 billion hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) molecules? In mulas of the species in each set: (a) ammonium ion and ammo-
what way is it different? nia; (b) magnesium sulfide, magnesium sulfite, and magnesium
• 2.81 For what type(s) of compound do we use Roman numerals in sulfate; (c) hydrochloric acid, chloric acid, and chlorous acid;
the name? (d) cuprous bromide and cupric bromide.
• 2.82 For what type(s) of compound do we use Greek numerical • 2.99 Give the formulas of the compounds in each set: (a) lead(II)
prefixes in the name? oxide and lead(IV) oxide; (b) lithium nitride, lithium nitrite, and
• 2.83 For what type of compound are we unable to write a molecu- lithium nitrate; (c) strontium hydride and strontium hydroxide;
lar formula? (d) magnesium oxide and manganese(II) oxide.

Skill-Building Exercises (grouped in similar pairs) • 2.100 Give the name and formula of the compound whose mol-
• 2.84 Write an empirical formula for each of the following: ecules consist of two sulfur atoms and four fluorine atoms.
(a) Hydrazine, a rocket fuel, molecular formula N2H4 • 2.101 Give the name and formula of the compound whose mol-
(b) Glucose, a sugar, molecular formula C6H12O6 ecules consist of two chlorine atoms and one oxygen atom.
• 2.85 Write an empirical formula for each of the following:
• 2.102 Correct the name to match the formula of the following
(a) Ethylene glycol, car antifreeze, molecular formula C2H6O2
compounds: (a) calcium(II) dichloride, CaCl2; (b) copper(II)
(b) Peroxodisulfuric acid, a compound used to make bleaching
oxide, Cu2O; (c) stannous tetrafluoride, SnF4; (d) hydrogen
agents, molecular formula H2S2O8
chloride acid, HCl.
•• 2.86 Give the name and formula of the compound formed from the • 2.103 Correct the formula to match the name of the following
following elements: (a) sodium and nitrogen; (b) oxygen and compounds: (a) iron(III) oxide, Fe3O4; (b) chloric acid, HCl;
strontium; (c) aluminum and chlorine. (c) mercuric oxide, Hg2O; (d) dichlorine heptaoxide, Cl2O6.
•• 2.87 Give the name and formula of the compound formed from the
•• 2.104 Give the number of atoms of the specified element in a for-
following elements: (a) cesium and bromine; (b) sulfur and bar-
mula unit of each of the following compounds, and calculate the
ium; (c) calcium and fluorine.
molecular (formula) mass:
•• 2.88 Give the name and formula of the compound formed from the (a) Oxygen in aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3
following elements: (b) Hydrogen in ammonium hydrogen phosphate, (NH4)2HPO4
(a) 12L and 9M (b) 30L and 16M (c) 17L and 38M (c) Oxygen in the mineral azurite, Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2
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Problems 85

•• 2.105 Give the number of atoms of the specified element in a •• 2.115 Each circle contains a representation of a binary compound.
formula unit of each of the following compounds, and calculate Determine its name, formula, and molecular (formula) mass.
the molecular (formula) mass:
(a) (b)
(a) Hydrogen in ammonium benzoate, C6H5COONH4
(b) Nitrogen in hydrazinium sulfate, N2H6SO4
oxygen
(c) Oxygen in the mineral leadhillite, Pb4SO4(CO3)2(OH)2
nitrogen
•• 2.106 Write the formula of each compound, and determine its mo- chlorine
lecular (formula) mass: (a) ammonium sulfate; (b) sodium dihy-
drogen phosphate; (c) potassium bicarbonate.
•• 2.107 Write the formula of each compound, and determine its mol-
ecular (formula) mass: (a) sodium dichromate; (b) ammonium
perchlorate; (c) magnesium nitrite trihydrate.
Mixtures: Classification and Separation
Concept Review Questions
•• 2.108 Calculate the molecular (formula) mass of each compound: • 2.116 In what main way is separating the components of a mixture
(a) dinitrogen pentaoxide; (b) lead(II) nitrate; (c) calcium perox- different from separating the components of a compound?
ide. • 2.117 What is the difference between a homogeneous and a het-
•• 2.109 Calculate the molecular (formula) mass of each compound: erogeneous mixture?
(a) iron(II) acetate tetrahydrate; (b) sulfur tetrachloride; (c) • 2.118 Is a solution a homogeneous or a heterogeneous mixture?
potassium permanganate. Give an example of an aqueous solution.
•• 2.110 Give the formula, name, and molecular mass of the Skill-Building Exercises (grouped in similar pairs)
following molecules: • 2.119 Classify each of the following as a compound, a homoge-
neous mixture, or a heterogeneous mixture: (a) distilled water;
(a) O (b) (b) gasoline; (c) beach sand; (d) wine; (e) air.
• 2.120 Classify each of the following as a compound, a
C
homogeneous mixture, or a heterogeneous mixture: (a) orange
S H
juice; (b) vegetable soup; (c) cement; (d) calcium sulfate;
(e) tea.
•• 2.121 Name the technique(s) and briefly describe the procedure
•• 2.111 Give the formula, name, and molecular mass of the following you would use to separate each of the following mixtures into
molecules: two components: (a) table salt and pepper; (b) table sugar and
sand; (c) drinking water contaminated with fuel oil; (d) veg-
(a) (b) H etable oil and vinegar.
•• 2.122 Name the technique(s) and briefly describe the procedure
N O C you would use to separate each of the following mixtures into
two components: (a) crushed ice and crushed glass; (b) table
sugar dissolved in ethanol; (c) iron and sulfur; (d) two pigments
(chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b) from spinach leaves.
•• 2.112 Give the name, empirical formula, and molecular mass of
the molecule depicted in Figure P2.112. Problems in Context
•• 2.113 Give the name, empirical formula, and molecular mass of •• 2.123 Which separation method is operating in each of the follow-
the molecule depicted in Figure P2.113. ing procedures: (a) pouring a mixture of cooked pasta and boil-
ing water into a colander; (b) removing colored impurities from
raw sugar to make refined sugar; (c) preparing coffee by pouring
P hot water through ground coffee beans?
•• 2.124 A quality-control laboratory analyzes a product mixture us-
S
C O ing gas-liquid chromatography. The separation of components is
more than adequate, but the process takes too long. Suggest two
ways, other than changing the stationary phase, to shorten the
analysis time.
Cl

Figure P2.112 Figure P2.113 Comprehensive Problems

•• 2.125 Helium is the lightest noble gas and the second most abun-
Problems in Context dant element (after hydrogen) in the universe.
• 2.114 Before the use of systematic names, many compounds had (a) The radius of a helium atom is 3.11011 m; the radius of its
common names. Give the systematic name for each of the fol- nucleus is 2.51015 m. What fraction of the spherical atomic
lowing: (a) blue vitriol, CuSO45H2O; (b) slaked lime, Ca(OH)2; volume is occupied by the nucleus (V of a sphere  43r3)?
(c) oil of vitriol, H2SO4; (d) washing soda, Na2CO3; (e) muriatic (b) The mass of a helium-4 atom is 6.646481024 g, and each
acid, HCl; (f) Epsom salt, MgSO47H2O; (g) chalk, CaCO3; of its two electrons has a mass of 9.109391028 g. What frac-
(h) dry ice, CO2; (i) baking soda, NaHCO3; (j) lye, NaOH. tion of this atom’s mass is contributed by its nucleus?

This figure is available as a transparency and is also on the Presentation Center, within the art library.
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86 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

•• 2.126 From the following ions and their radii (in pm), choose a •• 2.136 Scenes A–I depict various types of matter on the atomic
pair that gives the strongest ionic bonding and a pair that gives scale. Choose the correct scene(s) for each of the following:
the weakest: Mg2 72; K 138; Rb 152; Ba2 135; Cl 181; (a) A mixture that fills its container
O2 140; I 220. (b) A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler ones
1
•• 2.127 Prior to 1961, the atomic mass standard was defined as 16 of (c) An element with a very high resistance to flow
16
the mass of O. Based on that standard: (a) What was the mass (d) A homogeneous mixture
of carbon-12, given the modern atomic mass of oxygen is (e) An element that conforms to the walls of its container and
15.9994 amu? (b) What was the mass of potassium-39, given its displays a surface
modern isotopic mass is 38.9637 amu? (f) A gas consisting of diatomic particles
• 2.128 Give the molecular mass of each compound depicted below, (g) A gas that can be broken down into simpler substances
and provide a correct name for any that are named incorrectly. (h) A substance with a 2/1 ratio of its component atoms
(i) Matter that can be separated into its component substances by
boron monosulfur
(a) flouride (b) S dichloride physical means
(j) A heterogeneous mixture
Cl (k) Matter that obeys the law of definite composition
Br F

phosphorus dinitride
(c) P trichloride (d) O N pentaoxide

Cl

•• 2.129 Transition metals, located in the center of the periodic table,

have many essential uses as elements and form many important A B C
compounds as well. Calculate the molecular mass of the follow-
ing transition metal compounds:
(a) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 (b) [Pt(NH3)4BrCl]Cl2
(c) K4[V(CN)6] (d) [Ce(NH3)6][FeCl4]3
••• 2.130 A rock is 5.0% by mass fayalite (Fe2SiO4), 7.0% by mass
forsterite (Mg2SiO4), and the remainder silicon dioxide. What is
the mass percent of each element in the rock?
•• 2.131 Polyatomic ions are named by patterns that apply to D E F
elements in a given group. Using the periodic table and Table 2.5,
give the name of each of the following: (a) SeO42; (b) AsO43;
(c) BrO2; (d) HSeO4; (e) TeO32.
•• 2.132 Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, formed from the
reaction of phosphoric acid with ammonia, is used as a crop
fertilizer as well as a component of some fire extinguishers.
(a) What are the mass percentages of N and P in the com-
pound? (b) How much ammonia is incorporated into 100. g of G H I
compound?
•• 2.133 Nitrogen forms more oxides than any other element. The •• 2.137 The number of atoms in 1 dm3 of aluminum is nearly the
percents by mass of N in three different nitrogen oxides are same as the number of atoms in 1 dm3 of lead, but the densities
(I) 46.69%; (II) 36.85%; (III) 25.94%. (a) Determine the empir- of these metals are very different (see Table 1.5). Explain.
ical formula of each compound. (b) How many grams of oxygen •• 2.138 You are working in the laboratory preparing sodium
per 1.00 g of nitrogen are in each compound? chloride. Consider the following results for three preparations of
••• 2.134 Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes, 10B (19.9%) the compound:
and 11B (80.1%). Although the B2 molecule does not exist Case 1: 39.34 g Na  60.66 g Cl2 ±£ 100.00 g NaCl
naturally on Earth, it has been produced in the laboratory and Case 2: 39.34 g Na  70.00 g Cl2 ±£
been observed in stars. (a) How many different B2 molecules 100.00 g NaCl  9.34 g Cl2
are possible? (b) What are the masses and percent abundances Case 3: 50.00 g Na  50.00 g Cl2 ±£
of each? 82.43 g NaCl  17.57 g Na
•• 2.135 Dimercaprol (HSCH2CHSHCH2OH) was developed during Explain these results in terms of the laws of conservation of
World War I as an antidote to arsenic-based poison gas and is mass and definite composition.
used today to treat heavy-metal poisoning. It binds the toxic ele- •• 2.139 The seven most abundant ions in seawater make up more
ment and carries it out of the body. than 99% by mass of the dissolved compounds. They are listed
(a) If each molecule binds one arsenic (As) atom, how many in units of mg ion/kg seawater: chloride 18,980; sodium 10,560;
atoms of As could be removed by 175 mg of dimercaprol? sulfate 2650; magnesium 1270; calcium 400; potassium 380;
(b) If one molecule binds one metal atom, calculate the mass % hydrogen carbonate 140.
of each of the following metals in a metal-dimercaprol combina- (a) What is the mass % of each ion in seawater?
tion: mercury, thallium, chromium. (b) What percent of the total mass of ions is sodium ion?

Environmental: 2.139
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Problems 87

(c) How does the total mass % of alkaline earth metal ions com- can thus be determined by measuring the relative abundance of
pare with the total mass % of alkali metal ions? molecular masses in a sample of N2O.
(d) Which makes up the larger mass fraction of dissolved com- (a) What different molecular masses are possible for N2O?
ponents, anions or cations? (b) The percent abundance of 14N is 99.6%, and that of 16O is
•• 2.140 The scenes below represent a mixture of two monatomic 99.8%. Which molecular mass of N2O is least common, and
gases undergoing a reaction when heated. Which mass law(s) is which is most common?
(are) illustrated by this change? •• 2.147 Silver acetylide (AgC2H) is a shock-sensitive explosive.
The synthesis of an organic compound in the presence of
silver salts leaves a residue whose mass spectrum shows an
ion with m/e 132.9 but no other ions between m/e 130 and 135.
Should the chemist be concerned that the residue may be
explosive?
•• 2.148 Choose the box color(s) in the periodic table below that
match(es) each of the following:

273 K 450 K 650 K

••• 2.141 When barium (Ba) reacts with sulfur (S) to form barium
sulfide (BaS), each Ba atom reacts with an S atom. If 2.50 cm3 of Ba
reacts with 1.75 cm3 of S, are there enough Ba atoms to react with
the S atoms (d of Ba  3.51 g/cm3; d of S  2.07 g/cm3)?
•• 2.142 Succinic acid (below) is an important metabolite in biologi-
cal energy production. Give the molecular formula, empirical
formula, and molecular mass of succinic acid, and calculate the
mass percent of each element.

O
C (a) Four elements that are nonmetals
(b) Two elements that are metals
C (c) Three elements that are gases at room temperature
H
(d) Three elements that are solid at room temperature
(e) One pair of elements likely to form a covalent compound
•• 2.143 Fluoride ion is poisonous in relatively low amounts: 0.2 g of (f) Another pair of elements likely to form a covalent compound
F per 70 kg of body weight can cause death. Nevertheless, (g) One pair of elements likely to form an ionic compound with
in order to prevent tooth decay, F ions are added to drinking formula MX
water at a concentration of 1 mg of F ion per L of water. How (h) Another pair of elements likely to form an ionic compound
many liters of fluoridated drinking water would a 70-kg person with formula MX
have to consume in one day to reach this toxic level? How many (i) Two elements likely to form an ionic compound with for-
kilograms of sodium fluoride would be needed to treat a mula M2X
8.50107-gal reservoir? (j) Two elements likely to form an ionic compound with formula
•• 2.144 Which of the following models represent compounds hav- MX2
ing the same empirical formula? What is the molecular mass of (k) An element that forms no compounds
this common empirical formula? (l) A pair of elements whose compounds exhibit the law of mul-
tiple proportions
(m) Two elements that are building blocks in biomolecules
(n) Two elements that are macronutrients in organisms
•• 2.149 The two isotopes of potassium with significant abundance
in nature are 39K (isotopic mass 38.9637 amu, 93.258%) and 41K
(isotopic mass 40.9618 amu, 6.730%). Fluorine has only one
naturally occurring isotope, 19F (isotopic mass 18.9984 amu).
A B C D E
Calculate the formula mass of potassium fluoride.
•• 2.150 Boron trifluoride is used as a catalyst in the synthesis of or-
•• 2.145 Antimony has many uses, for example, in infrared devices ganic compounds. When this compound is analyzed by mass
and as part of an alloy in lead storage batteries. The element has spectrometry (see Tools of the Laboratory, p. 55), several differ-
two naturally occurring isotopes, one with mass 120.904 amu, ent 1 ions form, including ions representing the whole mol-
the other with mass 122.904 amu. (a) Write the AZX notation for ecule as well as molecular fragments formed by the loss of one,
each isotope. (b) Use the atomic mass of antimony from the two, and three F atoms. Given that boron has two naturally
periodic table to calculate the natural abundance of each isotope. occurring isotopes, 10B and 11B, and fluorine has one, 19F, calculate
•• 2.146 Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O; nitrous oxide) is a greenhouse the masses of all possible 1 ions.
gas that enters the atmosphere principally from natural fertilizer •• 2.151 Nitrogen monoxide (NO) is a bioactive molecule in blood.
breakdown. Some studies have shown that the isotope ratios of Low NO concentrations cause respiratory distress and the
15
N to 14N and of 18O to 16O in N2O depend on the source, which formation of blood clots. Doctors prescribe nitroglycerin,

Biological: 2.142, 2.151; Engineering: 2.143, 2.145; Environmental: 2.146; Organic: 2.144, 2.150
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88 Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

C3H5N3O9, and isoamyl nitrate, (CH3)2CHCH2CH2ONO2, to neutrons to number of protons (N/Z) in a nucleus correlates
increase NO. If each compound releases one molecule of NO per with its stability. Calculate the N/Z ratio for (a) 144Sm; (b) 56Fe;
atom of N, calculate the mass percent of NO in each medicine. (c) 20Ne; (d) 107Ag. (e) The radioactive isotope 238U decays in
••• 2.152 TNT (trinitrotoluene; below) is used as an explosive in con- a series of nuclear reactions that includes another uranium isotope,
234
struction. Calculate the mass of each element in 1.00 lb of TNT. U, and three lead isotopes, 214Pb, 210Pb, and 206Pb. How many
neutrons, protons, and electrons are in each of these five isotopes?
N •• 2.155 The anticancer drug Platinol (Cisplatin), Pt(NH3)2Cl2,
reacts with the cancer cell’s DNA and interferes with its growth.
H (a) What is the mass % of platinum (Pt) in Platinol? (b) If Pt costs
$19/g, how many grams of Platinol can be made for $1.00 million
C (assume that the cost of Pt determines the cost of the drug)?
O •• 2.156 Grignard reagents, which contain a C—Mg bond, have the
general formula CH3—(CH2)x—MgBr and are essential in the
synthesis of organic compounds. (a) Calculate the mass percent
••• 2.153 Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form esters, which of Mg if x  0. (b) Calculate the mass percent of Mg if x  5.
are found in all plants and animals. Some are responsible for the (c) Calculate the value of x if the mass percent of Mg is 16.5%.
flavors and odors of fruits and flowers. What is the percent by •• 2.157 In a sample of any metal, spherical atoms pack closely
mass of carbon in each of the following esters? together, but the space between them means that the density of the
Name Formula Odor sample is less than that of the atoms themselves. Iridium (Ir) is
one of the densest elements: 22.56 g/cm3. The atomic mass of Ir
Isoamyl isovalerate C4H9COOC5H11 apple is 192.22 amu, and the mass of the nucleus is 192.18 amu.
Amyl butyrate C3H7COOC5H11 apricot Determine the density (in g/cm3) of (a) an Ir atom and (b) an Ir
Isoamyl acetate CH3COOC5H11 banana nucleus. (c) How many Ir atoms placed in a row would extend
Ethyl butyrate C3H7COOC2H5 pineapple 1.00 cm [radius of Ir atom  1.36 Å; radius of Ir nucleus 
•• 2.154 Nuclei differ in their stability, and some are so unstable that 1.5 femtometers (fm); V of a sphere  43r3]?
they undergo radioactive decay. The ratio of the number of •• 2.158 Which of the following steps in an overall process involve(s) a
physical change and which involve(s) a chemical change?

1 2

4 5

Biological: 2.155; Organic: 2.153, 2.156