TOPIC 2: PV SOLAR SYSTEM.

The components of a solar PV system include: -

1. Solar modules
2. Batteries
3. Charge controller
4. Inverter
5. Loads
THE PARTS OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

SOLAR MODULES
A PV module converts solar energy (sunlight) into electricity. A common material for PV
module is silicon semiconductor.
The photovoltaic is the direct conversion of sunlight to electricity. Light striking solar cells is
converted into electric energy. This occurs according to a principle called the ‘photo-electric
effect’. Solar electric devices are also called photovoltaic or PV devices.
The basic unit of solar electric production is the solar cell. A solar cell (also known as a
photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device that converts light energy into
electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode.
Light striking solar cells creates a current powered by incoming light energy. They produce
electricity when placed in sunlight. Most solar cells do not get used up or damaged while
generating electric power. Their life is limited only by breakage or long-term exposure to the
elements. If a high-quality solar cell module is properly protected, it should last for more than
25 years.
Working Principle of Solar Cell

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction,
through very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient
energy to the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the
thermal equilibrium condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can
quickly come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction.
Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the
junction because of barrier potential of the junction.
Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the
junction became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons
becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes
becomes more in another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will
behave like a small battery cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we
connect a small load across the junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it

TYPES OF PV MODULES
There are three types of silicon PV module shown below
MONOCRYSTALLINE
Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of cylindrical silicon ingots. Four sides are cut out of
the cylindrical ingots to make silicon wafers, which is what gives monocrystalline panels their
characteristic look.
 Advantages
 The pure silicon content of monocrystalline solar cells makes them the most efficient solar
panels among all other varieties. Thus they have an efficiency quotient of between 15%-20%
 They are the most space-efficient. The solar cells are capable of producing four times more
electricity to a quarter-space utilization for their installation.
 The solar cells exhibit better performance in low light conditions as compared to
polycrystalline solar cells.
Disadvantages
 Although monocrystalline silicon cells can perform well in low light conditions, the entire
circuit can break down if the panels are in full shade conditions.
 Dirt and polluted ambiance also can hamper the performance of these types of solar cells.
 The basic shape of monocrystalline silicon cells is cylindrical with round edges. Although this
characteristic shape accounts for its functional effectiveness, the structure feature leads to
substantial wastage of original silicon.
 Monocrystalline silicon cells are vulnerable to temperature fluctuations. They became
ineffective in areas, which have low temperatures and extremely high temperatures.
POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLAR
Raw silicon is melted and poured into a square mold, which is then cooled and cut into
perfectlysquare wafers.

Advantages
 The process used to make polycrystalline is simpler and cost-effective.
 The amount of waste silicon is less as compared to monocrystalline
 Polycrystalline solar cells have slightly lower heat tolerance than monocrystalline
panels. This means they can perform in slightly worse than monocrystalline solar
in high temperatures.
Disadvantages
 Because of lower silicon purity, polycrystalline solar cells are not quite as efficient
as monocrystalline cells.
  Polycrystalline has lower space efficiency, a larger surface to output the same
electricalpower as compared to monocrystalline solar panels.
AMORPHOUS SILICON
Amorphous is the thin film of silicon so that cost is relatively low for small size such as
10W,20W. However, efficiency is much lower than crystalline type as a result the physical
dimensions are almost twice as big as compared to monocrystalline type. Major
disadvantagesare degradation of efficiency and weakness against lightning surge.
It is not recommended to use amorphous type of 25W or bigger size since price is not
differentfrom crystalline type, and the performance is less than crystalline type

THE I-V CURVE

I-V Curves are used to compare solar cell modules and to predict their performance at
various temperatures, voltage loads and levels of insolation. Each solar cell and module
has its own particular set of operating characteristics. At a given voltage, a module (or cell)
will produce a certain current. These properties are described by the current-voltage curve,
better known as the I-V curve.

There are several points of interest about the I-V curve in Figure
There are several points of interest about the I-V curve in Figure 3.4:

 Isc, the short-circuit current, is the current measured in full sunlight when
the positive and negative wires are ‘shorted’. In practice, a suitably rated
ammeter is attached to the positive and negative leads of the module. On
the I-V curve, this is the point where the curve crosses 0 volts (Point B). This
is the maximumcurrent that the module is capable of producing.
 Voc, the open circuit voltage, is the voltage measured with an open circuit.
It ismeasured with the module in full sunlight using a voltmeter attached to
the positive and negative leads of the module. On the I-V curve, this is the
point where the curve crosses 0 amps (Point C). This is the maximum voltage
that themodule can produce on a sunny day.
 Pm, the maximum power point, is the point on the I-V curve where the
module produces the greatest power (its rated maximum, which in this
example is 42Wp). The maximum power point is always found at the place
where the curvebegins to bend steeply downward (‘the knee’, Point D). It is
advisable to operate a module as near to the maximum power point as
possible. If, for example, the module in Figure 3.4 is operating a load that
demands 16 volts (Point E), poweroutput (at 36 watts) is much less than that
at the maximum power at Point D

CONNECTIONS TO OTHER PV MODULES

To obtain more power, PV module can be connected in an array. Both parallel and series
connection are possible. All modules should be of the same model. It is not recommended
to mix modules of different types and sizes.

Assignment: advantages and disadvantages of each

MOUNTING SOLAR MODULES
Choose the array mounting location – and the method of mounting – during planning
stages and not at the last minute! Choose carefully where to mount your modules. Pole
mounts or ground mounts (for larger arrays) are usually preferable to roof mounts. For
one to two modules, a pole mount is often the best solution: pole mounts enable easy
orientation of the module and can be assembled in a workshop on the ground.
Roof-mounting of solar modules is often a problem for a number of reasons:
• Roofs are very different from each other so no single type of mount is the right one.
• Roofs face different directions.
• Roofs are shaded at different times of the day or year.
• Roofs are easily damaged and can be a dangerous place to work.
• Module-sellers mostly offer modules, not solar-module mounts.
• Customers often do not think about mounting modules until the last minute.
CHOOSING THE MOUNTING SITE
When selecting a mounting site, always look for an unshaded position that receives full
sunlightthroughout the day. Take the following points into consideration when deciding
where to put your array.
Modules should be located:
 • Off the ground, if possible, so that they are out of the dust and out of the way of
humans and animals. Do not locate modules near chimneys or kitchens as they
could become covered withsoot and smoke.
• Where they will not be shaded between 9.00am and 5.00pm every day of the
year. Check the position of the sun during different times of the day (and during
different seasons) to determine whether shadows from trees, TV aerials or other
objects will cross the intended module location
• Where they will not get too hot. If installed on a metal roof, module mounts
should be at least10cm (4 inches) above the metal surface, with enough space for air
circulation behind the module. If possible, the module should be located where it
will be cooled by the wind.
• In a secure location. Do not place modules where they might be stolen. Do
not locate them where they might be vandalized or hit by stones.
• As near as possible to the batteries and controller. If the modules are located
too far from thecontroller and batteries, there is a greater possibility of voltage drop
and power loss so larger diameter and/or several cables will need to be used.
METHOD OF MOUNTING
1. ‘Pole mounts’ are a good method to ensure modules are mounted at the proper
orientation and location. They are good for small arrays (up to four modules). Pole
mounts place the modules well off the ground in secure highly visible places. They
require metal pipes (steel poles), strong frames and, usually, a foundation. Note
that small pole mounts are easily converted into rotatable trackers for single module
systems.
2. ‘Rooftop mounts’ use racks or brackets to fix the array to the roof structure. Their
advantage is that they are safe and secure, although it may be difficult to clean
modulesmounted high on the roof. Brackets may be constructed so that modules
can be pivoteddownward for easy cleaning or so that their angle can be adjusted
seasonally. Never mount modules directly on to the roof without leaving space
underneath them. Never make roof mounts the highest point on the roof, as they
can attract lightning.
3. ‘Ground mounts’ are used for arrays of four or more modules (e.g. for water
pumps, refrigeration or large home systems with no other suitable place to locate
the modules).They secure modules to racks fixed in concrete foundations and may
be fenced off to protect the array from animals and curious people. Mounted at in
your area. Make sure that rain water can easily run off the modules (i.e. as a
minimum they must have at leasta 10° tilt). Never mount modules flat.
4. . ‘Tracking mounts’ can automatically track the sun throughout the day. However,
theyare generally not economical unless you have more than four modules. They
add extra cost and complications to the system, and may increase system
management work (or likelihood of breakdown). Follow the sun as its orientation
changes from north to south.

BATTERIES
BASICS OF A BATTERY.
SHS use rechargeable batteries to store electricity. There are several kinds of rechargeable
batteries such as Lead-acid, Ni-MH (Nickel Metal Hydride), Lithium-ion, etc. The most
suitable rechargeable battery for SHS is lead-acid battery.
Advantages of Lead-acid battery are:
• Large capacity
• Low cost (Cost per capacity is the most economical among available
batteries.)Disadvantages are:
• Need to maintain electrolyte level
• Weakness against over charge and over discharge.
• Complicated behavior (capacity varies based on discharge rate and temperature)
• Heavy
• Danger of sulfuric acid
• Environmental hazard of lead electrode.
CHARGING STAGE
During the charging stage, water of electrolyte is broken down into gas (oxygen and
hydrogen)raising the specific gravity of the electrolyte. Loss of water reduces electrolyte
level. When electrolyte level is lower than the indicated level, distilled water must be added
to recover the level. At full charge stage, a unit cell voltage is 2.4 – 2.5 V (14.4V – 15V for
6 cells) dependson type of battery
DISCHARGING STAGE
Specific gravity becomes low. When the battery is fully discharged, the voltage of each
unit cell is 1.75V (10.5V for 6 cells). Over discharge beyond this voltage damages battery
permanently.
 When a unit cell voltage is below approximately 1.95V (11.7V for 6 cells) sulfuric crystal
is produced on surface of electrode. This phenomenon is called sulphation and reduces the
lifetime of battery. It is very important to maintain battery voltage above 1.95V (11.7V for
6 cells).
ELECTROLYTE
Lead-acid battery uses diluted sulfuric acid as electrolyte. However, sulfuric acid does not
evaporate. If diluted sulfuric acid is spilled, it becomes concentrated sulfuric acid after the
water has evaporated.
When electrolyte level is low, add distilled water. Do not add too much distilled water than
theindicated level. Some technicians still believe that higher electrolyte level increase the
capacity of the battery. This is not true. Excess water reduces the specific gravity and
reduces battery efficiency and causes a mess through spillage.
STRATIFICATION OF ELECTROLYTE
Stratification occurs when electrolyte in flooded-cells separates into layers, with the
heavier electrolyte ‘sinking’ to the bottom of the cell and the lower density electrolyte
floating to the top of the cell. Not only does this give false hydrometer readings, it also
decreases the performance of the cell. Avoid stratification by occasionally giving an
equalizing charge to thebattery – the intense bubbling of equalization mixes up the acid.
CONNECTIONS TO OTHER BATTERIES
Connecting batteries in series increases voltage, but does not increase overall amp-hour
capacity. All batteries in a series bank must have the same amp-hour rating. Connecting
batteries in parallel increases total current capacity by decreasing total resistance, and it
also increases overall amp-hour capacity.

CHOOSING THE BEST BATTERY

When choosing your battery take the following things into consideration:
1. Price. At the end of the day, a decision must be made on the cost of equipment.
Somevery good batteries are available for high prices – the buyer must decide what
is important based on the particular needs of the system.
2. Capacity. Choosing the right size battery for your needs is important.
3. Cycle life. In general, the better the battery, the longer the cycle life. Remember
that batteries with lead-calcium plates have a lower tolerance for deep discharges.
4. Replacement and availability. It is wise to choose a battery that is locally available.
When the time comes to replace the set, it is more likely that you will be able to
find a similar type.
5. Maintenance. Choose a battery that meets your maintenance needs and
capabilities. If batteries are unlikely to be maintained, consider spending a little bit
more on ‘maintenance-free’ units.
 6. Size. Be aware of the physical size of the battery and where it is going to be placed.
Make sure you use a safe area to enclose or house it.
7. Mobility. If your battery is going to be moved around (not recommended but
sometimes necessary) choose a type that will not be damaged by vibration and
tilting.
CHARGE CONTROLLER
‘Charge controllers’ which are devices used to manage the energy flow in solar electric
systems. Solar electric systems use charge controllers (also called charge regulators) to
manage the electrical power produced by the modules, to protect the batteries and to act
as a connection point for all the system components (in systems without inverters).

TYPES OF CHARGE CONTROLLERS

1. Series type controllers
2. Shunt type controllers
3. PWM controllers
4. MTTP controllers
SERIES TYPE CHARGE CONTROLLERS
Series-type controllers rely on relays or electronic switches in series between the module
and the battery to disconnect the module when the battery reaches a set voltage. When the
battery state of charge goes down after the load is used, the controller resets the charger to
turn ‘on’ during the next solar cycle. The simplest and lowest cost controllers, these are
less common inmodern PV systems.
Over charge protection
PV module is connected to charge a battery (Switch Ⓒ is on) When battery voltage reaches
at maximum charging voltage, called HVD (High Voltage Disconnect), PV module is
disconnected to avoid further charging (Switch Ⓒ is off). When battery voltage reduced to
certain voltage, called HVR (High voltage Reconnect), after disconnection of the PV
module,the PV module is connected again to start charging (Switch Ⓒ is on again).

Over discharge protection

The load is connected to use appliances (Switch Ⓒ is on). When the battery voltage
reaches a minimum discharging voltage, called LVD (Low Voltage Disconnect), load is
disconnected toavoid over discharge (Switch Ⓒ is off)

SHUNT TYPE CONTROLLERS

Shunt-type controllers work in parallel between the array and battery. They gradually
reduce power from the module to the battery as the battery reaches full charge, harmlessly
short- circuiting it back through the module. In general, shunt-type controllers are low
cost, fairly simple in design and well suited for small off-grid PV systems.
 ‘PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION (PWM) CONTROLLERS
‘Pulse-width modulation (PWM) controllers’ send pulses of charge to the battery that vary
depending on its state of charge. A battery with a low state of charge gets a ‘wide’ pulse
(i.e. high charge) or the charge is on continuously. As the battery gets fully charged, the
controller sends increasingly ‘narrow’ pulses of charge. A fully charged battery (in ‘float’
mode) just getsan occasional narrow pulse. The controller measures the state of charge and
adjusts the pulse accordingly. (Both PWM and MPPT controllers use features of the series-
or shunt-type controllers.)

CHECKING THE STATUS OF A CHARGE CONTROLLER

When checking the system, it is important to know the status of the charge controller to
determine whether the PV module is connected or the load is disconnected. It is easy to
checkif the load is connected or not to the charge controller. You can do this simply by
switching ona light and if the light comes on, the load is connected. If it does not it follows
that the load is disconnected. Some charge controllers have a function that displays the
disconnection of load.
INVETER
A power inverter is a power electronic device that changes direct current (DC) to alternating
current (AC).
Important factors to consider when selecting inverters include the following.
Type- Make sure the inverter is for off-grid systems, not a feed-in inverter for grid connect
systems. Be aware of the differences between an inverter and an inverter-charger.
Size- Inverters must be properly sized to handle the highest load that the system might require
or the peak energy demand (see Chapters 8 and 11 for details on sizing inverters).
Voltage -Make sure your inverter matches the battery/controller voltage of your system and
the voltage of your loads. Inverters are commonly available to accept 12V, 24V and, for very
large systems, 48V DC.
Efficiency -Usually inverters are between 60 and 95 per cent efficient. Efficiency varies greatly
depending on the load and most inverters do not perform up to their efficiency rating all the
time (they tend to be less efficient when loads are at less than 50 per cent of their capacity).
LOADS – an electrical component or portion of a circuit that consumes (active) electric power,
such as electrical appliances and lights inside the home. The term may also refer to the power
consumed by a circuit .Examples is lamps

There are five important lighting principles to consider when choosing and installing lamps:
 • The amount of visible light the lamp produces;
• The amount of electric power required by the lamp;
• The voltage required by the lamp, DC or AC;
• The direction in which the light shines;
• The colour temperature of the light.