MODULE 2: The Mole Concepts

Content
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Atomic Mass
2.3 The Mole
2.4 Molar Mass (Molecular Weight)
2.5 Percentage Composition by Mass
2.6 Combustion Analysis
2.7 Reaction Yield

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In this Module, we will discuss another important concept that Chemists employ in their
calculations, the mole concept. Before that, we will define and discuss determination of atomic
mass and molar mass. We will further discuss determination of percentage composition of
chemical compounds by mass, combustion analysis and reaction yields.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this lecture you should be able to:

• Define atomic mass

• Describe the mole concept
• Define molar mass (molecular weight)
• Determine mass of a given molecule
• Determine percentage composition of elements in a compound
• Define molarity and determine molarity of solutions
• Describe combustion analysis and determine percentage composition of
compounds from their combustion analysis data.
• Describe yield of a chemical reaction and calculate theoretical and
percentage yields of reactions from given information

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2.2 ATOMIC MASS

Atomic mass is defined as the mass of one atom of an element in atomic mass units (amu). The
carbon-12 isotope with exactly 12 amu was chosen as the reference atom. Using the carbon-12
atom as a basis for all the other elements, proportions were set up and atomic masses were
assigned to each of the other elements.

Atomic masses can be looked up on the periodic table and they are the larger numbers in each
box. It is important to note that the atomic masses are averages of all the isotopes of that
particular element. For example, carbon exists in the form of a carbon-12 atom, carbon-13 atom
and carbon-14 atom, and when the atomic masses were calculated, an average was taken. Below
is an example in which the atomic mass of carbon is solved for.

98.89% of all carbon atoms are carbon-12, 1.11% of all carbon atoms are carbon-13. The
percentage of carbon-14 atoms present in all carbon atoms is so small that it plays no part in this
calculation.

.9889 (12 amu) + .0111 (13 amu) = 12.01

This is how the atomic mass is calculated.

2.3 THE MOLE

The mole is the standard method in chemistry for communicating how much of a substance is
present. Even tiny samples of chemicals contain huge numbers of atoms, ions or molecules. For
convenience, chemists have chosen the mole to save as a reference for a collection of a large
number of these species like e.g. a “dozen” is a reference to a collection of 12 objects. The
symbol for mole is mol.

The mole is defined as the amount of matter that contains as many elementary objects as the
number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12 (12C).

A number to represent the mole has been very carefully measured in a variety of ways over
decades; this number is 66.0221367 x 1023. This is usually simplified to three (3) figures as 6.02
x 11023, and it is known as the Avogadro's number, in recognition to Amedeo Avogadro (1776-
1881) who was the first person to realize that equal "amount" of substances contained the same
number of atoms. It is abbreviated as NA.

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It is important to remember that when the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified
and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or groups of particles. It is not
proper, however, to use the term mole for a heterogeneous or homogeneous mixture.

? A mole of air is = 6.02 x 1023. Comment on the statement

Worked Examples

1. Calculate the mass in grams of 1.80 x 1023 molecules of H2O, (Given: H = 1.0 g, O = 16.0
g; Avogadro’s number = 6.02 x 1023)
Soln:
The Avogadro’s number means there are 6.02 x 1023 molecules per one mole of any
substance
Molecular mass of H2O is 18g
Therefore there are 6.02 x 1023 molecules per 18g of H2O
To determine the mass of 1.80 x 1023 molecules f H2O:
6.022 x 1023 molecules ≡ 18 g of H2O
1.80 x 1023 molecules ≡ X g of H2O
X = 1.80 x 1023 molecules x 18g/6.022 x 1023
X = 5.38g of H2O

2.4 MOLAR MASS (MOLECULAR WEIGHT)

The molar mass is the mass in grams of one mole. One

mole contains 6.022 x 1023 entities.

Therefore, a molar mass is the mass in grams of 6.022 x 10 23 entities. The molar mass of a
substance is the molecular mass in grams. However, remember that compounds, which are ionic,
have no “molecular” weight but formula mass/formula weight in grams.

? How does one calculate a molar mass?

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If someone asked right now how much one mole of Helium weighs, the answer would be 4.003
grams, but if someone asked how much one mole of Al2S3 (Aluminum Sulfide) weighs, uh???
To do this there is a basic assumption that has to be put in place. This assumption is that in one
mole of Al2S3, there are two moles of Al and three moles of S.

So using this assumption, there are 2 moles of Al and 3 moles of S, so take 26.98 grams (which
is the mass of 1 mole of Al) and multiply it by 2 (because there are two moles of Al in Al2S3).
Then take 32.06 grams (which is the mass of 1 mole of S) and multiply it by 3 (because there are
three moles of S in Al2S3). Then add the two amounts up.

Al+3 = 2 mol Al+3 = 2 (26.98) = 53.96 g

S-2 = 3 mol S-2 = 3 (32.06) = 96.18 g

Total = 150.14 g

Molar mass is the summation of all atomic mass units in the substance

Worked Example

1. Determine the mass of 0.75 mol LiCl. (Given atomic masses: Li = 7.0 g; Cl = 35.5
g)
Soln:
1 mol of LiCl = (7.0 + 35.5)g
= 42.5g/mol
0.75 mol of LiCl = 0.75 mol x 42.5 g/mol
= 31.875g

EXERCISE 2.1

Determine the mass of each element in the substance.

(1) 0.345 mol LiCl,
(2) 1.98 mol KBr,
(3) 0.57 mol HCl
(4) 0.75 mol of H2SO4

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2.5 PERCENT COMPOSITION BY MASS

Percent composition by mass is defined as the percent by mass of an element in a compound. It

is obtained by dividing the mass of an element by the total mass of the compound times 100. So
if someone wanted to find the percent by mass composition of Aluminum and Sulfur in
Aluminum Sulfide, he would proceed as follows:
% Al = (g of Al/g of Al2S3) x 100
% S = (g of S/g of Al2S3) x 100
% Al = (53.96 g / 150.14 g) x 100 = 35.94% Al
% S = (96.18 g / 150.14 g) x 100 = 64.06% S

So, Aluminum sulfide is 35.94% by mass of Aluminum and 64.06% of Sulfur by mass.

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Determine the percent composition of each element
in each of the following compounds.
i. MgS
ii. LiCl
iii. KBr
iv. HCl

2.6 COMBUSTION ANALYSIS

Combustion analysis is a method used in both organic chemistry and analytical chemistry to
determine the elemental composition (empirical formula) of a pure organic compound by
combusting the sample under conditions where the resulting combustion products can be
quantitatively analyzed. Once the number of moles of each combustion product has been
determined the empirical formula or a partial empirical formula of the original compound can be
calculated.

To perform combustion analysis, an organic compound, usually containing carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen is burnt in a closed container. Chemists must know the mass of the substance before
burning it. This is so that the mass of the products of combustion can be compared to the original

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total mass. The mass of the combustion productions can then be used to calculate the number of
moles of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon in the original mass.

Worked Example:
An unknown liquid compound containing carbon, hydrogen and chlorine was found to have a
molar mass of 131.5 g/mol. Upon subjecting it to combustion analysis, a 1.75 g sample of the
compound gave 0.121 g of H2O and 1.17 g of CO2. The compound was further subjected to
precipitation analysis to determine the amount of Cl, where 0.655 g of sample gave 2.16 g of
AgCl. Determine the molecular formula of the compound.
(Given: C = 12.0g; H = 1.0g; Cl = 35.5g; Ag = 107.8g)

Solution
Step 1: Use the combustion data to determine the percentage of C and H
CO2 = 12g + 32g = 44g
If 44g of CO2 contains 12g of C, how much C will be contained in 1.17 g of CO2?
1.17g x 12g/44g = 0.319g of C
Therefore 1.75 of the sample contains 0.319g of C, which is 0.319/1.75 x 100 = 18.2%
H2O = 2g + 16g = 18g
If 18g of H2O contains 2g of H, how much will be contained in 0.121 g of H2O?
0.121g x 2g/18g = 0.0134g
Therefore 1.75g of the sample contains 0.0134g of H, which is 0.0134/1.75 x 100 = 0.7%

Step 2: Use precipitation data to determine the percentage of Cl

AgCl = 107.8 g + 35.5g = 143.3g
If 143.3g of AgCl contains 35.5g of Cl, how much will be contained in 2.16g?
2.16g x 35.3g/143.3g = 0.535g
Therefore 0.655g of the sample contains 0.535g of Cl, which is 0.535/0.655 x 100 = 81.6%
Now you have the percentage compositions of all three elements in the sample
i.e. C = 18.2% H = 0.7% Cl = 81.6% (you may add them to ensure they are ~ 100)

Step 3: Use this data and the molar mass of the sample compound to determine its formula
C H Cl
18.2/12 = 1.52 0.7/1 = 0.7 81.6/35.5 = 2.3
1.52/0.7 = 2 0.7/0.7 = 1 2.3/0.7 = 3
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The compound’s simplest formula is C2HCl3
This is the empirical formula

Step 4: Compare this with its molar mass of 131.5g/mol to get its molecular formula.
(2 x 12) + (1 x 1) + (3 x 35.5) = 131.5x
131.5 = 131.5x
x=1
Therefore the molecular formula of the compound is C2HCl3 (trichloroethene)
Menthol, the substance we can smell in mentholated cough drops, is composed of C, H, and O. A
0.1005 g sample of menthol is combusted, producing 0.2829 g of CO2 and 0.1159 g of H2O.
What is the empirical formula for menthol?

2.7 REACTION YIELD

For a given mass of reactants in a chemical reaction it is possible to calculate the maximum
possible mass of a certain product that could be produced.

Balanced chemical equations portray that reactants gives 100% products. This is generally not
possible due to some or all of the following reasons:
• Unfavourable conditions.
• Reaction being stopped before it was complete.
• Side reactions.
• Back reactions leading to equilibrium.

Due to the above reasons reaction yield have to be considered. The yield of a reaction is the
amount of product produced. The theoretical yield is the amount of product that is predicted by
the balanced equation. The actual yield is the amount of product obtained in an experiment. The
percent yield describes what percent of the theoretical yield was actually obtained in an
experiment.

Actual yield
%yield = × 100
Theoretical yield

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 Given any reactants (e.g. H2 and O2), how much product will be
? formed?

Questions of this type are frequently encountered in the course of studying matter and its
transformations. The mole method becomes very hand in solving such problems. The method is
based on the fact that the stoichiometric coefficients in a balanced equation can be interpreted as
the number of moles of each substance. For example the formation of water:
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
We read the equation above as 2 moles of hydrogen gas react with 1 mole of oxygen gas to
produce 2 moles of water. The following steps should be adhered to when employing the mole
method:
i. Make sure the chemical equation is correctly balanced.
ii. Using the molar mass of the substance, convert the mass in the problem to moles.
iii. Construct a molar proportion (two molar ratios set equal to each other). Use it to convert
to moles of the unknown.
iv. Using the molar mass of the unknown substance, convert the moles just calculated to
mass

Diagrammatically the steps followed while solving stoichiometric problems can be represented
as below:

Mass of Moles of Moles of Mass of

Reactant Reactant Product Product

Let us work out the following problems so as to clarify the application of the mole method
concept.

Example:
(1) How many grams of AgCl can be formed from 2.00 grams of NaCl and an excess of AgNO3?

Step 1: Write and Balance the equation

AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl(s) + NaNO3

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Step 2: Change mass to moles
number of grams of NaCl
Number of moles of NaCl =
Molar Mass of NaCl

2.00
=
58.44
Let x = the number of grams of AgCl formed
x
Number of moles of AgCl =
143.32

Step 3: construct molar proportions.

From the equation we have a 1:1 ratio of NaCl and AgCl
Therefore:
Number of moles of AgCl = Number of moles of NaCl
x 2.00
=
143.32 58.44
x =
(2.00)(143.32) = 4.90 grams
58.44

(2) A 0.2905 gram sample containing only Pb3O4 and inert matter gives a precipitate of PbSO4
weighing 0.3819 grams. What is the purity of the sample?
From the information given we have:
Pb3O4 → 3PbSO4
x
No of moles of Pb3O4 =
685.57
0.3819
No of moles PbSO4 =
303.25
x  1   0.3819 
=   
685.57  3   303.25 
1 × 0.3819 × 685.57
x =
3 × 303.25
x = 0.2878 grams of Pb 3 O 4

No of grams of Pb 3 O 4
% purity = × 100 %
No. of grams of sample

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 0.2878
= × 100 %
0.2905
= 99.07 %
These steps are applicable to most of the problems of mass relationships. However, special
observation must be made when dealing with reactions in solution.

2.7.1 Molarity

Instead of using molar mass to convert a mass to moles, you use the volume and molarity of the
solution to get the moles of reactants. The rest of the calculation follows the remaining three
steps.

? What is molarity?

The term concentration is used to indicate the amount of solute dissolved in a quantity of solvent
or solution. The most widely used way of quantifying concentration in chemistry is molarity.

The molarity of a solution is defined as the number of moles

of solute in a litre volume of solution.

moles solute
Molarity =
volume solution (litre)

? How do you calculate the number of moles of solute?

conc g/L
(i) moles =
Molecular Mass

(ii) conc g/L = moles x Molecular Mass

conc g/L
(iii) Molecular Mass =
moles

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The three relationships given indicate that the equation can be employed to solve for any of the
items comprising it depending on the given data.

2.7.2 Dilution

For convenience, solutions are purchased or prepared in concentrated stock solutions, which
must be diluted before use.
When you take a certain volume of stock solution and add solvent to make it into a different
volume the act is known as dilution. During dilution the law of conservation of matter is obeyed
since it is only the molarity, which changes while the number of moles of the molecules in
solution is not altered. Therefore:
Moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution
Or
Number of millimoles of solute before dilution = millimoles of solute after dilution
Or
Number of grams of solute before dilution = number of grams of solute after dilution
Or
Mass % x grams of solution before dilution = mass % x grams of solution after dilution

Dilution is a common task in any laboratory. So it seems logical to have a

convenient way of remembering how to do it.

Starting with the definition of molarity:

moles solute
Molarity = = M = moles of solute/V(s)
volume solution (litre)
Solving for moles of solute gives:
Moles of solute = M x V (litre)
Or
Millimoles of solute = M x V (mL)
If moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution then
M x V in litres before dilution = M x V in litres after dilution or
M1V1 = M2V2

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Where: M1 = molarity before dilution
V1 = volume of solution before dilution
M2 = molarity of solution after dilution
V2 = volume of solution after dilution
Note: use the formula only for dilution problems, not for problems involving equations. Also
make sure you understand and remember it.

Example:
What is the concentration of pure water?
Molecular weight of water = total atomic mass of 2H + O = (2x1.008) + 16.0 = 18.0
Density of H2O = 1 g/mL or 1000 g/L
 1 mole   1000 g 
  ×   = 55.6 M Pure water is 55.6 M H2O
 18.0 g   L 

SUMMARY
This lecture introduced you to the Mole Concept (mole = 6.022 x 1023 particles).
This is based on the fact that the stoichiometric coefficients in a balanced equation
can be interpreted as the number of moles of each substance. We have also
discussed the determination of molecular weight and percentage composition by
mass of a chemical compound. You have been introduced to the concept reaction
yield of a chemical reaction and how to determine theoretical yield and percentage
yield. Lastly, we have discussed the meaning and importance of dilution and how
to determine molarity of a chemical solution.

REFERENCES
1. Chang, R.: General Chemistry: The essential concepts. 3rd ed. The McGrow-Hill
Companies, Inc., New York. 2003
2. Hill, J. W., Chemistry for Changing Times. 5th ed. Macmillan Publishing
Company. New York. 1988
3. Petrucci, R. H. and W. S. Harwood: General Chemistry: Principles and Modern
applications. 7th ed. Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey. 1997

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