MODULE 1: Some Fundamental Concepts

Content

1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Scientific Method
1.3 Some Basic Definitions
1.4 The Atomic Theory
1.5 Chemical Bonding
1.6 Chemical Change

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The introductory lecture discusses the scope, objectives, and methods of chemistry. It also
introduces some of the basic vocabulary and notations that will be used in the remainder of the
unit. Classification of matter and technologies for separating mixtures will also be discussed.
Elementary atomic theory is presented from an experimental perspective.

Objectives
After studying this lecture you should be able to:
• Define chemistry
• Outline the scientific method
• Classify material properties
• Tell how chemical changes differ from physical changes
• Distinguish between the three states of matter
• Relate the names of elements to their international element symbols and tell why some
elements symbols are unrelated to the name

Recall:
Definition of Chemistry

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 i. Chemistry is the study of matter and its transformations. It is the study of connections
between molecular and macroscopic events.

ii. Chemistry is the science in which substances are examined to find out what they are
made of, how they act under different conditions, and how they are combined or
separated to/from other substances.

1.2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

In all sciences, there is a system that describes how to go about solving problems. This system is
called the Scientific Method. Basically, there are four parts to this system that are very logical in
order.

(a) An observation must be made. Observations can be either in the form of quantitative
observations or qualitative observations. Quantitative observations have to do with
numbers, whereas qualitative observations have to do with a physical characteristic of
something. For example, the observer observes a two winged red butterfly. The fact that
the butterfly has two wings is a quantitative observation and the fact that the wings are
red is a qualitative observation.

(b) After making many observations, the observer formulates a question, which is normally,
why did that happen?

(c) The observer looks for possible reasons, that is formulates theories. A theory is the
observer's interpretation of the data collected. The first set of theories is called a
hypothesis. A hypothesis is simply an educated guess on the part of the observer to
explain the question at hand.

(d) The observer tests his theory by experimentation. If the theory is wrong the observer goes
back and formulates a new theory, and if the theory is right, the observer goes back and
retests it.

Science is in no way perfect. People do make mistakes, this is part of the human nature, but as
technology improves and more people test the previous theories, the wrong ones get sorted out
from the right ones and science corrects itself.

Schematically we can represent the scientific method as follows:

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 Observation

Hypothesis

Theory

Theory modified
as necessary

Theory tested by
further experiments

Figure 1.1: The Scientific Method

For chemistry the above is best looked at as follows:

Observations refer to measurement in the macroscopic world - using balances, rulers,

beakers, burettes, pipettes and so forth.

Representation involves the use of special symbolic and equations for communication.

Interpretations are based on atoms and molecules, which belong to the microscopic world.
It is this notion of switching between two worlds, which create problems to some people when
they learn chemistry for the first time.

1.3 SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS

Some words which are used in everyday conversations have different meanings when used in
scientific language. In this lecture we will give definitions of important and fundamental terms
that have direct application to nearly all what we will discuss in this unit and in further study in
chemistry.

1.3.1 Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. In simpler terms, matter consists of some
"thing" with volume. It is essentially anything you can directly or indirectly touch, see, feel,
taste, or smell.

"Matter is the stuff around you"

Anything that takes up space or has a mass of any kind is matter. Everything you can touch is
made of matter. If it is made of anything, that anything is matter. Everything you will learn about

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Chemistry will all be based on how matter reacts and combines, such as: table, clouds, water, air,
etc...

Matter has properties, which help to distinguish one matter from the other. A property is any
characteristic that can be used to describe or identify something. Properties can be either physical
or chemical.

1.3.2 Mass and weight

Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter and weight is a measure of force. On earth, weight is
the measure of attraction between the earth and the mass in question. Before the exploration to
the moon or space it was 'normal' to use mass and weight interchangeably: This was acceptable
because we were referring to the pull of gravity on the earth's surface.

The weight of John Young on the moon was one sixth that on earth because the moon's pull is
only one sixth as strong as the earths. On a different note, the mass of an object can be
determined readily with a balance, and this process, oddly, is called weighing. Hence, this is
partly the reason why we use mass and weight interchangeably.

1.3.3 Pure Substances and Mixtures

States of matter: There are three main states of matter: Solids, Liquids and Gases. Solids
ordinarily maintain their shape and volume regardless of their location. A liquid occupies a
definite volume, but assumes the shape of the occupied portion of the container. This property of
definite volume of liquids is used so much in chemistry of transferring samples using pipettes,
burettes or measuring cylinders. Gases maintain neither shape nor volume. They expand to fill
completely whatever container one puts them in. Gases can be easily compressed.

Classification of matter: Matter can be classified in yet another way- that is, it can be divided
into two broad classes: mixtures and pure substances.

A pure substance is a form of matter that has a definite or constant composition (the number and
type of basic units present) and distinct properties. Pure substances differ from one another in
composition and can be identified by their appearance, smell, taste, and other properties.

A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their
identity. Mixtures are a physical or mechanical combination. A combination can be uniform and

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homogeneous like homogenized milk or it can be heterogeneous (the individual components
remain physically separated and can be seen as separate components) like sugar and sand.
Shaking mixes the oil and water into assorted sized globs. The mixture separates when allowed
to stand. Gravity physically pulls the denser water layer down under the lighter less dense oil.

Mixture ←   → pure substances

physicaal change

The following is a diagrammatic representation of the classification of matter

M atter

H eterogenous P hysica l m eth ods H om ogenous

m ixtures m ixtures
P hysic al m ethods
P ure S ubstanc es

C om pounds C hem ical m e thods E lem e nts

A tom s

N uc le us E lec trons

Protons N e utrons

Figure 1.2: Classification of matter

Mixtures can be made in any proportions. Salt water can be a liter of water with a few grams of
salt. Salt water can also be a saturated solution of a liter of water and more than 400 grams of
salt. The particles retain their identities and the original substances can be recovered using
physical process. Sand and iron filings can be mixed. The iron can be removed using a strong
magnet.

Water is always H2O. Table salt is always NaCl.

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When you make salt water the mixture is mechanical. The particles in the mixture will still be
H2O and the particles from NaCl will be Na+ and Cl-.

1.3.4 Chemical and Physical Properties

Physical properties: Physical properties are solubility, volume, length, color, odor, melting
point, and boiling point. The physical properties are measured or observed without changing the
identity of the substance or matter in the object. When sugar dissolves in water the sugar
particles (molecules) are simply separated from one another. The water molecules surround the
sugar particles. The sugar and water retain their individual structure. If you boil off the water, the
sugar can be recovered. Mechanical physical changes are reversible. One physical change can
undo another.

Chemical properties: Chemical properties are observed when changes occur in the identity of
the matter in a substance. The color changes in plant leaves and flowers result from chemical
reactions. The burning of hydrogen gas in oxygen to form water is a chemical property of
hydrogen.

1.3.5 Atoms and Molecules

Atoms: all matter is composed of atoms of different kinds, combined in many different ways.
Atoms are the smallest possible units of a substance. Atoms are the basis of chemistry. They are
the basis for everything in the Universe. Every basic atom has three particles. These are
electrons, protons, and neutrons. In this unit we are going to cover basics like atomic structure
and bonding between atoms. Molecules are made up of atoms held together by Special Forces =
bonds

1.3.6 Elements and Compounds

Substances can be either elements or compounds. An element is a substance that cannot be

separated into simpler substances by chemical means. There are about 109 known elements.
Elements play as central a role in chemistry as, for example, letters of the alphabet play in the
study of language. Because of this importance, chemists have devised several related ways of
tabulating information regarding the known elements.

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A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in
fixed proportions. Compounds have properties that are distinctly different from those of the
starting atoms. Compounds are represented using formulas. These use the element symbols and
subscripts. The element symbols tell what kind of atoms are in the compound. The subscripts tell
the number of each type of atom.

Elements

Let us elaborate more on chemical elements. As I have mentioned above that there are more than
109 known elements. The original alchemists found it convenient to use an abbreviation to
represent an element. The modern element symbols are usually based on the element names. The
symbol starts with a capital letter. The symbols for the elements are often the first letter in the
element name or the first and second or third letter. The same set of symbols in referring to
chemicals is used universally. The symbols are written in Roman letters regardless of language.
Usually the metallic elements have a name ending in -ium. Like any generalization, there are
clear exceptions like helium, He. Look at the following examples to see how the symbols and
names relate.

Modern names Latin names

bismuth is Bi lithium is Li platinum is Pt tin Sn (stannum)

boron is B magnesium is Mg radon is Rn potassium K (kalium)

calcium is Ca manganese is Mn silicon is Si silver Ag (argentum)

carbon is C nickel is Ni sulfur is S sodium Na (natrium)

chlorine is Cl helium is He zinc is Zn Copper Cu (cuprum)

One column in the table above is labeled as Latin names; these are some elements, which have
retained their ancient names, which were in Latin.

1.4 THE ATOMIC THEORY

The microscopic composition of matter that is the symbolic representations; chemical formulas
and nomenclatures employed by chemists provide convenient ways of communicating detailed
knowledge of the makeup of chemical substances.
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1.4.1 Summary of Daltons Atomic Theory

• Elements are composed of extremely small particles, called atoms.

• All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, shape, mass, and
chemical properties. The atoms of one element differ from the atoms of other elements.
• Chemical compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any
compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either
an integer or a simple fraction.
• A chemical reaction involves only the reorganisation (separation, combination, or
rearrangement of atoms) it does not result in their creation or destruction.
The last hypothesis is another way of stating the Law of conservation of mass.

1.4.2 Chemical Formulas

In section 1.3.5 we gave definitions of atoms and molecules. Now, employing the Daltons
Atomic Theory, we are in a position to give another version of definitions as follows: An atom is
the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination, and a molecule is an
aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by special force - bonds.

An individual atom can be represented by the symbol of the element, with the charge and mass
of the atom indicated when appropriate (see periodic table in appendix 1). All compounds are
composed of different elements and different numbers of them. To identify which elements and
how many of them are present in different compounds, a set of rules were set up to identify
compounds. The rules are very simple. The first rule is that chemical symbol is written to tell
what element is used in a compound and the second rule is a subscript that follows the symbol to
tell how many of these elements are present. The name of the substance using this method of
naming is called the molecular formula. An example of the molecular formula are H2O (2 atoms
of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen), CO2 (1 atom of carbon and 2 atoms of oxygen), and Br2 (2
atoms of bromine). Empirical formulas give the correct relative atomic composition but do not
give the molecular formula (details on this will be encountered under polymers).

All formulas that are multiples of simpler ratios can be assumed to represent molecules: The
formulas N2, H2, H2O2, and C2H6 represent nitrogen gas, hydrogen gas, hydrogen peroxide, and
ethane. However, formulas that show the simplest possible atomic ratios must be assumed to be
empirical unless evidence exists to the contrary. The formulas NaCl and Fe2O3, for example, are

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empirical; the former represents sodium chloride (table salt) and the latter iron oxide (rust), but
no single molecules of NaCl or Fe2O3 are present.

When groups of atoms combine as a subunit, the subunit is usually treated as a single symbol.
For example, the sulfate group, SO42-, is treated as a single symbol (included in molecules such
as Al2(SO4)3, aluminum sulfate), as is the nitrate group, NO3- (included in molecules such as
NH4NO3, ammonium nitrate).

There are still other ways of showing what atoms and how many are in compounds. Another way
might be to draw the structural formula. The structural formula is a picture that shows what
atoms are bonded to what atoms and what the relative positions of the atoms are in the
compound. In this type of formula lines are drawn between the atoms to show how atoms are
bonded together.

H H H H

H C C O H H C O C H

H H H H

Ethyl alcohol Dimethyl ether

1.5 CHEMICAL BONDING

Studying the chemical bond helps us understand the forces that hold atoms together in molecules
and ions together in ionic compounds.

There are more than 100 chemical elements. There are millions of chemical compounds. To form
these compounds, atoms of different elements must be held together in specific combinations.
Chemical bonds are the forces that maintain these arrangements. Chemical bonding also plays a
role in determining the state of matter. At room temperature, water is a liquid, carbon dioxide is a
gas, and table salt is a solid- because of differences in chemical bonding.

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1.5.1 Why are Chemical Bonds Formed?

Chemical bonds form to lower the energy of the system, the components of the system become
more stable through the formation of bonds. Everything wants to be more stable – it is easy to lie
down than stand up, bonding is Nature's way of allowing the elements to lie down.

If we examine the periodic table (see appendix 1), we find that the elements in Group VIII
(helium, neon, argon and so on), are particularly stable, so much so that they were once labeled
the "inert gases". We now know that these elements are not inert. Indeed xenon forms a range of
compounds, but, nevertheless, they are very stable. Hence, now we refer to these elements as the
noble gases. This stability is the result of their electronic configuration, they have a full valence
shell of electrons and this imparts stability. G. N. Lewis (1916) suggested that bonds (covalent)
formed to enable elements to attain this "noble gas configuration". We can extend this idea to
ionic compounds, in a compound such as sodium chloride, one element loses electron(s) to gain
this stable electronic configuration whilst the other gains electron(s) to achieve the same result.

The answer is usually yes. The elements to the left of the periodic table (Groups I and II) can
achieve the noble gas electronic configuration by losing electron(s). Ionization enthalpies show
that loss of electrons of these is relatively easy (ionization enthalpies are fairly low for the
elements in these groups). These elements are termed electropositive. The opposite is true of the
elements to the right of the periodic table. Elements in groups VI and VII can most easily attain
the noble gas configuration by gaining electron(s). These are the electronegative elements. A
measure of their ability to accept electrons can be seen in the electron affinity values for these
elements.

1.5.2 Types of Bonds and Properties of Resulting Compounds

[Link] Ionic bonds

An ionic bond is the product of the electrostatic forces of attraction between positive (cations)
and negative (anions) ions. An ionic compound is a large collection of ions in which the positive
and negative charges are balanced. The structure of a solid ionic compound maximizes the net
attractive forces among the ions.

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Properties of ionic compounds

• Ionic crystals consist of cations and anions arranged so that ions of opposite charge are
as close as possible in the crystal lattice.
• Ionic Crystals are transparent, hard, brittle, and can be cleaved along planes. This
suggests that ions are arranged in highly ordered patterns in the crystal lattice.
• Ionic compounds typically have high melting points and are solids at room temp. Melting
point correlates to some degree with the ionic charge. Ionic solids do not conduct
electricity, but molten salts do.
• Though pure water does not conduct an electric current, many ionic compounds dissolve
in water to form solutions that do conduct an electric current. They are called strong
electrolytes.
• The high conductivity of aqueous solutions of ionic compounds suggests that the ions are
mobile when dissolved in water. Our model envisions water molecules surrounding
(hydrating) the individual ions to keep them separated.

[Link] Covalent bonds

In covalent bonding, both atoms are trying to attract electrons-the same electrons. Thus, the
electrons are shared tightly between the atoms. The force of attraction that each atom exerts on
the shared electrons is what holds the two atoms together.

The smallest entity of the compounds that are formed is a molecule. The naming of the molecule
is by writing first the name of the lowest electronegative element. Prefixes are used to indicate
the number of each atom present. The second element is changed to end with a suffix -ide as for
ionic compounds (for example CCl4: carbon has the lowest electronegative value so the name is
Carbon tetrachloride).

Properties of covalent (molecular) compounds

• Low melting and boiling points
• Do not conduct electricity
• Most are insoluble in water
• Soluble in organic solvents.

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[Link] Metallic Bond

The metallic bond is formed due to sharing of the valence electrons of the atoms throughout the
metal structure. The model that tends to be applied is Band Theory but for now we can imagine
the metal ions held together by this "sea" of electrons. This allows the metal to be bent and
distorted without the structure breaking. These electrons are also relatively free to move and this
explains the high electrical conductivity of metals.

Properties of metals
• Metals are generally solids at room temperature
• They conduct electricity and heat
• They are malleable
• They have high tensile strength and are usually hard.

[Link] Other types of bonds

Other bonds, which are equally important, will be mentioned here. Details on how they are
formed and their effect in holding matter together will be encountered as we proceed in the study
of this unit.
• Polar bonds
• Dative (covalent) bonding
• Hydrogen bonding
• Van der Waals forces
• Dipole interactions

1.6 CHEMICAL CHANGE

A chemical change occurs whenever compounds are formed or decomposed.

Definitions:

o Reactants are substances that are combined to react with each [Link] disappear as
chemical change occurs.

o Products are substances produced by the reaction. They appear as chemical change occurs.

o Catalysts are substances which speed up the reaction, but aren't produced or consumed.

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The above definitions, in a microscopic sense, can be put as follows: A chemical change occurs
whenever there is a rearrangement of atoms that makes or breaks chemical bonds.
bonds

1.6.1 Chemical Reactions

Chemical symbols and formulas are used to describe chemical reactions; they denote substances
having one set of formulas chang
changing
ing into substances having another set of formulas.

Basic Types of Chemical Reactions

A. SYNTHESIS (COMBINATION/COMPOSITION)

Two or more elements or compounds may combine to form a more complex compound.
Basic form: A + X → AX. Example: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
B. DECOMPOSITION

A single compound breaks down into its component parts or simpler compounds. Basic
form: AX → A + X. Example: C6H12O6 → 6C + 6H2O

C. REPLACEMENT

Amore element takes place of another element in a compound and sets the less active free.
Basic form: A + BX → AX + B or AX + Y → AY + X. Example of single replacement: Zn
+ CuCl2 → ZnCl2 + Cu and example of double replacement: Fe2O3 + 6HCl → 2FeCl2 +
3H2O
D. IONIC

These reactions occur between ions in aqueous solutions. A reaction will occur when a pair
p
of ions comes together to produce at least the following: (i) a precipitate (ii) a gas (iii)
water or some non-ionized
ionized substance. Basic form: AX + BY → AY + BX

How to write a Chemical Equation

As you have seen the above examples of chemical reactions that they can be expressed through
equations that resemble mathematical equations. The reactants appear on the left side of the
equation, and the products are written on the right side of the equation. The reactants and
products are connected by an arrow ( ) sometimes they will be connected by various types of

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double arrows. The single arrow shows that a reaction only proceeds in the direction indicated,
while the double arrow indicates that a reaction can proceed in either direction (that products are
alsoo reacting with each other to reform reactants). Thus, the equation 2Cl Cl2 indicates that
two chlorine atoms react to form a molecule of chlorine and that a reaction can also take place in
the reverse direction. This reaction, like all reactions, is affe
affected
cted by conditions such as
temperature. In the case of 2Cl Cl2, the reaction goes to the right at room temperature (25 °C)
and to the left only at much higher temperatures (about 500 °C). Sometimes the condition under
which a reaction takes place is writt
written
en over or below the arrow(s) as shown in the general
example below.

Other info
A(aq) B(ss) + C(g) + H2O(l) + heat

Where (s) = solid (l) = liquid (g) = gas (aq) = aqueous

Heat produced: exothermic

Heat consumed: endothermic

Other info: heat, pressure, catalysis, etc…

1.6.2 Balancing of Chemical Equations

Given a reaction:

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) C
CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O

If you count the atoms of each element involved in the reaction both sides of the equation you
will notice that are all equal. Such an equation is said to be bal
balanced.
anced. In order to be consistent
with the law of conservation of mass, all chemical equations must be balanced the law indicates
that atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

Consider the reaction between sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and sodium

dium hydroxide (NaOH) to form
sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) and water which can be written:

NaOH + H2SO4 H2O + Na2SO4

This is an incomplete equation, since the same number of atoms does not appear on both sides of
the reaction (for example, 1 sodium atom app
appears
ears in the reactants, but 2 sodium atoms appear in
the products). Such a reaction could not actually occur. The process of correcting this fault is
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called balancing the equation.. Placing a 2 in front of the NaOH balances the number of sodium
atoms, as welll as the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The balanced equation is:

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 2H2O (l) + Na2SO4 (aq);

This equation implies that two molecules of NaOH are necessary to react with each molecule of
H2SO4. An equation must be balanced before a chemist can make calculations based on it.
Balanced chemical equations are balanced not only with respect to charge and numbers of each
kind of atom but also with respect to mass. The periodic table (see appendix A) lists these atomic
weights: H = 1.01, Na = 23.0, O = 16.00, S = 32.1. So we can identify each atomic symbol with
an appropriate mass.

[Link] Guidelines to Balancing Chemical Equations

While using the guidelines given below:

1) Never touch subscripts when balancing equations since that will change the and therefore the
substance itself. The only way to balance an equation is to place numbers, called coefficients,
in front of whole formula/compound. Coefficients apply to the entire molecule that follows
it.

2) Check to be sure that you have included all the sou

sources
rces of a particular element that you are
balancing on a particular side since there may be two or more compounds that contain the
same element on a given side.

3) I suggest that you adjust mono atomic elements towards the end of the balancing act since
any change in their coefficients will not affect the balance of other elements.

4) When there are a group of atoms that are acting as a unit such as a poly-atomic ion (e.g.
PO43-) and they appear intact on both sides of the equation, it is best to balance them as a
self-contained group.

5) There can't be fractions in the final answer so multiply all the coefficients by LCM of the
denominators of all the fractions appearing in the equation to eliminate the fraction
coefficients.

Let us illustrate the use of the guide

guidelines
lines by working through the following example: Given:
Fe2(SO4)3 + K(SCN) → K3Fe(SCN)6 + K2SO4

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The choice of the starting point rests with you. However, it is common practice to begin with the
most complicated compound, in our case K3Fe(SCN)6. By inspection we note that Fe and (SCN)
ions are note shared on same side of the equation. We start to balance these. Since there are two
Fe ions on the left and only one on the right then we place 2 in front of the molecule to become
2K3Fe(SCN)6. This changes the quantity of (SCN) ions to become 12. On the left there is only
one (SCN) ion we put 12 as a coefficient of K(SCN). Our equation becomes

Fe2(SO4)3 + 12K(SCN) → 2K3Fe(SCN)6 + K2SO4

Now we go back to the left and work right. The Fe are balanced the sulfates are not. There are
three on the left, one on the right. We put 3 in front of K2SO4.

Again, let us go left work through right. Fe is OK, SO4 is OK, K is OK and (SCN) is OK. This is
the final balanced equation

Fe2(SO4)3 + 12K(SCN) → 2K3Fe(SCN)6 + 3K2SO4

SUMMARY

This Lecture introduces some key concepts which are used in the study of
chemistry, including matter and its properties; mass and weight; pure
substances and mixtures; chemical and physical properties; atoms and
molecules; elements and compounds; chemical and physical change. A
summary of Daltons Atomic Theory which is the basis of the modern chemistry
has been presented. The theory gives raise to the Law of Conservation of
Matter, which states that atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions. This led to discussing about chemical formulas, chemical bonding
and writing and balancing chemical equations.

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