INTRODUCTION
TO AIRCRAFT
PERFORMANCE
Week 2
Lecturer, Dr. İbrahim Mızrak
Steady Level Flight
The discipline of Aircraft Flight Mechanics requires
the formulation of relationships between aircraft
forces and aircraft motion. To define motion, it was
necessary to define the different airspeeds
Aircraft have six degrees of freedom - three
translational (x,y,z), and three rotational (ϕ,θ,ψ),
and to develop the expressions describing aircraft
flight, nine coupled equations are required. This
course will get to that point, and those equations
will be derived and utilised - but before that, some
really handy relationships can be defined for a flight
constrained to a single direction.
•Two aerodynamic; lift and drag.
•One propulsive; thrust.
Equilibrium Forces •One inertial; weight.
•We assume that the aircraft is a point It is traditional to define four mutually-orthogonal forces
mass, whereby we assume that the – see Figure 1
aircraft dimensions are negligible when
compared to the dimensions of motion.
•Steady flight means no acceleration,
so we can infer from Newton’s first law
that the sum of forces acting on the
aircraft is zero ∑→F=0 . This is
the equilibrium steady flight condition.
•The definition of forces on the aircraft
can change depending on the purpose - Figure 1 - Equilibrium Forces
and it is only be convention that we
define lift and drag in the directions we
do.
Steady, level flight:
• Constant altitude (h = const) and constant speed (V = const).
• No acceleration → ΣFx = 0 and ΣFz = 0.
• Small angles: flight-path angle γ ≈ 0 (level).
• Quasi-steady weight change: W decreases slowly with fuel burn (handled later by integration).
What we will *not* model today:
• Unsteady manoeuvres, climb/descent dynamics, gust response.
• Transonic drag* rise details (we’ll mention the idea, not the full compressibility treatment).
*Drag increases dramatically as an aircraft approaches Mach 1
The stall speed may be determined
Vertical Forces if C_Lmax is known.
Looking at the vertical forces, ∑Fz=0, therefore L=W:
• L = q S CL rearranging to find flight speed:
• D = q S CD
• q = ½ ρ V²
the Aircraft Speed Equation for steady level flight
Some basic aerodynamic behaviour may be inferred from it:
•Slower flight is possible by reducing wing loading - reducing aircraft mass, or increasing wing area. Or by
increasing CL - increasing α
•The minimum possible flight speed occurs at CLmax - just before stall
•Flight speed may be increased by reducing ρ - by flying at increased altitude
Longitudinal Forces
Looking at the longitudinal forces, ∑Fx=0, therefore T=D:
Drag estimation is complex, and can be performed via a variety
of means from datasheets, CFD, wind tunnel testing or - more
commonly - a combination of all.
In flight performance, we assume that the aircraft is operating (1)
in the region of linear aerodynamics, and utilise a drag model
as given by
where
**The first term represents the drag that is independent of aerodynamic incidence, whilst the second term is proportional to C^2_L, which represents the
induced drag and the component of form drag that varies with incidence.
Longitudinal Forces - 2
• C_D0: “zero-lift” (parasite) drag coefficient
(1) • K CL²: induced drag term (k depends on AR
and efficiency)
CD_0 is usually assumed to be constant, but can depend on:
• configuration changes (flap deployment)
• Reynolds Number (speed and height)
• Compressibility (shock waves)
• Or sometimes can be presented as the Oswold efficiency
factor, e0, which can be related to K through the aspect
ratio.
*The parameter k∼1.1−1.4 for most aircraft, and AR is the wing aspect ratio.
Longitudinal Forces - 3
C_D formulation (1) in the previous slide assumes that the minimum drag occurs at zero lift. This is the case for a
symmetric aerofoil, but not for a cambered one. Since most aircraft have a cambered wing, The expression should be
modified to
(2)
The second equation is more realistic for real aircraft - but adds complexity to the algebra, and the difference
between CD0 and CD,min is very small even for wings of moderate camber. For simplicity, (1) can be preferred to use in
development of the Aircraft Performance Equations.
The following is an extract from MacCormick [pp. 162-163]:
Induced Drag The drag that results from the generation of a
trailing vortex system downstream of a lifting surface of finite
aspect ratio.
What lift distribution on a
wing would fulfil the
requirement
To minimise drag at a given lift coefficient (π and aspect
ratio, AR, constant) it is required that δ is as small as
possible
It cannot be negative
Therefore δ =0 for minimum induced drag.
What is δ and can it have zero value?
δ is a constant which contains the coefficients of a Fourier
series which describes the distribution of vorticity and
hence the lift distribution across the wing
Parasite Drag The total drag of an airplane minus the induced drag. Thus, it is the drag not directly associated
with the production of lift. The parasite drag is composed of many drag components, the definitions of which
follow.
Form or Pressure Drag
Profile Drag
Even if the flow on a wing is not separated, there still exists a
pressure drag.
Due to the loss of momentum (energy) in the flow within the
boundary layer.
The low pressure in this wake creates a pressure imbalance
between the leading and trailing edge and hence a drag
force.
Skin Friction Drag
Skin friction drag dominates at high speeds where
the aircraft is flying at low lift coefficient and has
thin, attached, boundary layers.
Interference
Caused by the interaction of boundary layers
on adjoining surfaces. Will increase skin
friction and profile drag – may cause
separation
Design examples to reduce
interference drag
Trim Drag
For an aircraft in flight the moments acting about the c.g.
must be balanced to allow steady cruising flight termed
trimmed flight Due to this down force the main wing must
produce more lift, equal to the weight and the download on
the tail plane, hence increasing the induced drag of the main
wing. The tailplane, being a lifting surface, will also produce
induced drag.
Trim drag may be reduced by;
• Increasing the tail arm so that, to generate the same
moment, less down force is required.
• Installing a canard configuration so that the trimming
force is in the same direction as the wing lift.
• Using a flight control system which generates artificial
stability.
Base Drag
Base drag is the pressure drag caused by
the separated flow over the rear of an
object.
Usually found on projectiles such as
missiles and bullets but may also be found
on jet fighter type aircraft.
blunt rear
Cooling Drag
Caused by the engine installation
including the engine and its enclosure.
Cooling drag may be reduced by careful
cowling, radiator and exhaust design.
Drag Polar
The relationship between lift and drag is given through the
aircraft drag polar - often plotted as CL vs CD. Values
for CL and CD are commonplace in the literature - a quick
search yielded data for the Cessna 172S .
The drag polar shows the aerodynamic efficiency of a given
aircraft - that is, it represents the lift-to-drag ratio. You can find
the best (highest) lift to drag ratio as the tangent of a line
drawn from the origin to the curve.
Thrust required
The drag equation can be multiplied
by the numerator of the lift and drag
1
coefficients, 2 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑉 2 ∗ 𝑆 , to yield
In steady level flight, L=W, so the lift coefficient can be expressed as
dimensional drag - this can be
considered as the thrust required in
order to fly at a certain speed:
and hence
or
Minimum drag speed
From the drag equation in
dimensional form, the minimum
drag speed can be shown
Variation of drag with altitude
For an increase in altitude, A (profile drag) will
decrease whilst B (induced drag) will increase.
Profile drag is fundamentally a viscous effect,
so it makes sense that for fewer air particles
in a given volume, the profile drag would
decrease.
For induced drag, for a reduction in density, a
larger amount of circulation is required to
effect the same dimensional value of lift.
Hence, induced drag will increase.
Variation of drag with aircraft weight
By contrast to the density, the aircraft
weight only appears in the induced
drag term, and hence the profile drag
stays constant whilst the induced drag
increases with aircraft weight.
Removing the Altitude Dependency – EAS (Equivalent Airspeed)
The drag equation as presented, in dimensional form is
where the velocity in question is TAS. We can use the
relationship
to express the drag equation in terms of EAS:
or
SL: Sea level
Range vs Endurance
The aircraft drag can be considered as the force required to propel the aircraft forward. For this reason,
it is useful to determine the condition of minimum drag, as this means the aircraft is flying with the
greatest aerodynamic efficiency - when flying at this condition, the aircraft can go the farthest. This
defines the maximum range (see the note below). Hence, if a pilot wishes to fly the longest
distance (in a glider or propeller-drive aircraft) for a certain amount of fuel, they should fly at
The maximum range is found at V_md for a glider or a propeller-driven aircraft, for reasons that we’ll get
to.
The maximum range for a turbojet is found at the minimum power speed - so this is another reason why
we need to look at power.
Power is the rate of doing work - so the
power required to overcome drag is:
Power required
However, they will not be able to fly for the
longest period of time at this speed. For
certain aircraft missions, it is desirable to
seek endurance as opposed to range. The minimum power required is found
For consideration of endurance, the problem
is not one of minimising the force required,
but instead to minimise the amount of energy
required in a given amount of time, Hence,
the problem is not one of minimising
the force required (the drag), but minimising
the amount of work done per time - flying
with minimum power.
It is easy to compare the minimum drag speed and the
minimum power speeds, now:
Effect of altitude on minimum power
Recall that an increase in altitude caused the
total drag curve to shift to the right - increasing
the minimum drag speed but keeping the same
value of dimensional minimum drag.
A similar plot can be made to show the
variation of minimum power with altitude - it
can be seen that the minimum power increases
linearly, with a line that passes through the
origin.
𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟2𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐶𝐷0 , 𝐾
= 𝐾 , 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙, 𝑆 = 𝑆 𝑚
Thrust Available vs. Thrust Required
Level flight is possible at speeds where
thrust available equals (or exceeds) thrust
required; intersections of 𝑇𝐴 and
𝑇𝑅 𝑉 define the feasible speed range.
Thrust Available and Thrust Required which yields the two velocities from the graph, V1 and V2.
Problem 1 — Stall Speed (Level Flight)
Given: W = 12000 N, S = 16 m², ρ = 1.225 kg/m³, CLmax = 1.50.
Assume steady, level flight at stall: L = W and CL = CLmax.
Find the stall speed Vs (m/s).
Problem 2 — Drag at Two Speeds and Vmd
Use: W = 12000 N, S = 16 m², ρ = 1.225 kg/m³, CD0 = 0.020, K = 0.045.
For each speed, use: CL = W/(qS), CD = CD0 + K·CL², D = qSCD, where q = ½ρV².
a) Compute D at V = 35 m/s and V = 55 m/s.
b) Compute the minimum-drag speed Vmd and the corresponding Dmin.
Problem 3 — Effect of Weight on Vmd and Dmin
Weight increases from W1 = 12000 N to W2 = 15000 N. All
other parameters unchanged.
a) By what percentage does Vmd increase?
b) How does Dmin change? (Compute the new Dmin.)
Problem 4 — EAS to TAS Conversion
At an altitude where ρ/ρ_SL = 0.50, an aircraft flies at EAS (VE) = 60 m/s.
a) Find TAS (V).
b) In one sentence: why do drag curves “collapse” when plotted versus EAS?
Discussion of the following week
1. What is the purpose of 2. Why is there a gap between 3. Why does the rear of 4. If a table tennis ball
the small excrescencies, the engine intake and the buses and lorries become is placed in a vertical
as shown in the figure, fuselage side on the F16 so dirty? jet of air why does the
on the upper surface of shown in the figure below and ball remain in the
an F86 wing ? why do some aircraft have middle of the jet at a
perforations on the side of the fixed height even when
intake? disturbed?