Microwave

Module 4
G Boopalan,
Associate Professor,
SENSE, VIT Vellore.
Outline

 Introduction
 Travelling wave tube
 Klystron
 Reflex klystron
 Microwave semiconductor devices
 One-port negative resistance oscillator
 Tunnel diode
 Gunn diode
 IMPATT diode
 TRAPATT and BARITT diodes
MICROWAVE TUBES
1 MW Microwave • Higher power
tubes
Average power

• Limited life time

• High vacuum
1 KW
• High potential

Microwave
1W • Lower weight
semiconductor
devices • Smaller size

1mW • Longer life time

0.3 1 3 10 30 100 300

Frequency (GHz)
TYPES OF LINEAR BEAM TUBES
 Average power Peak power

10 MW 1000 MW

Klystron
1 MW 100 MW
Klystron

100 KW Coupled 10 MW
cavity TWT Coupled
Gridded Gridded
1 MW cavity TWT
10 KW tube tube
Helix
100 KW Helix
1 KW TWT
TWT

100 W 10 K W

0.3 1 3 10 30 100 300 0.3 1 3 10 30 100 300

Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)
 Important Parameters
• Peak power • Average power
• Efficiency • Gain
• Bandwidth • Frequency
• Harmonic and spurious power • Intermodulation products
• Manufacturability at low cost

Relative
Relative Relative Relative
Type  (%) Gain (dB) complexity of
BW (%) spurious level operating voltage
operation
Gridded tube 1-10 20-50 6-15 2 Low 1

Klystron 1-5 30-70 40-60 1 High 2

Helix tube 30-120 20-40 30-50 3 High 3

Coupled cavity
5-40 20-40 30-50 3 High 3
tube
TRAVELLING WAVE TUBES

 It is one of the most versatile microwave RF power amplifiers, which generate

hundreds and even thousands of watts of microwave power.
 The Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) is a high-gain, low-noise, wide-bandwidth
microwave amplifier.
 It is capable of gains greater than 40 dB with bandwidths exceeding an octave.
 Traveling-wave tubes have been designed for frequencies as low as
300 megahertz and as high as 50 gigahertz.
 The TWT is primarily a voltage amplifier. The wide-bandwidth and low-noise
characteristics make the TWT ideal for use as an RF amplifier in microwave
equipment.
 TWT amplifiers and they are typically capable of developing powers of up to 2.5
kW. For narrowband RF amplifier applications it is possible to use coupled
cavity TWTs and these can deliver power levels of up to 15 kW.
HELIX TRAVELLING WAVE TUBES
SLOW WAVE STRUCTURES

Slow-wave structures are special

circuits that are used in
microwave tubes to reduce the
wave velocity in a certain
direction so that the electron
beam and the signal wave can
interact.
The commonly used slow-wave structure is a helical coil with a concentric conducting cylinder that is shown below

The ratio of the phase velocity along the pitch to the phase velocity along the coil is given by the equation below

For a very small pitch angle, the phase velocity along the coil in free space is approximately represented by
The figure below shows the ω-β (or Brillouin) diagram for a helical slow-wave structure. The group velocity of the
wave is merely the slope of the curve.
FREQUENCY OF OPERATION

Frequency range : 0.07-9.4 GHz

Bandwidth : 0.8GHz approx.
Efficiency : 20-40%
Power output : up to 10kW
Power gain : 30-60dB
PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION

 Has an electron beam and a slow wave structure(They reduce wave velocity in a certain
direction so that electron beam and signal can interact).

 Beam is focused by a constant magnetic field.

 The magnetic field prevents the spreading of electron beam as it travels.

PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION

 O-type travelling wave tube. There are 4 modes of travelling wave-

• Forward wave-growing exponential amplitude, decaying exponential amplitude,
constant amplitude.
• Backward wave-no change in amplitude.

 Signal propagates and produces electric field at the center of the helix along the helix
axis.

 Electric field =velocity of light *(helix pitch/helix circumference)

 Interaction between the moving axial electric field and moving electrons which causes electrons
transfer energy to the wave on the helix this causes the signal wave on the helix to become larger.

 Electrons entering at zero field are not affected, at accelerated field are accelerated, and at
retarding field are decelerated, This causes bunching of electrons. These bunching of electrons at
the collector shifts the phase by pi/2

 Due to DC velocity of the electron is slightly greater than the wave velocity, each electron
encounters a strong retarding field which causes energy of the electron to be delivered to the wave
in on the helix. Thus amplification is achieved of the microwave signal voltage(kilowatts of
average power outputs).
Klystron
 A klystron is a specialized linear-beam
vacuum tube
 invented in 1937 by American electrical
engineers Russel and Sigurd Varian
 which is used as an amplifier for high
frequencies, from UHF radio
frequencies up into the microwave range
 Low-power klystrons are used as local
oscillators in
superheterodyne radar receivers
 while high-power klystrons are used as
output tubes in UHF television
transmitters, microwave relay, satellite
communication, and radar transmitter
Principle of operation

The two cavity klystron is a widely used microwave amplifier.

It operates on the principle of velocity and current modulation.
 Because of Velocity modulation bunch of electrons are formed.
 Because of current modulation kinetic energy from electrons is transferred
into cavity and the electrons are terminated at collector.
Two cavity Klystron
Advantages & Disadvantages

•Klystrons are capable of peak powers in the megawatt range

•Klystrons have very low noise levels.

•The major disadvantage of klystrons is their narrow band width.

 Performance Characteristics
•Frequency : 250 MHz –100 GHz.

P
•Power : 500 kW (CW)
(CW), 30 MW (P l d)
(Pulsed)

•Power Gain : 20 –70 dB

•Efficiency : 30 -50 %

•Bandwidth : 10 –60 MHz (Generally used in fixed freq. Applications)

Applications
•UHF TV Transmitters

•Satellite communication ground stations

•Atmospheric Radars

•Radar Transmitters
Reflex Klystron
What is Reflex Klystron ?

 Reflex klystron is a microwave device that works

on principle of velocity modulation.
 It was invented by Robert Sutton hence also
known as ‘Sutton’ klystron.
 It is a low power generator of 10-500mW power.
 It operates in frequency range of 1 to 25 GHz.
Structure
Applegate diagram
Construction
 A reflex klystron consists of an electron gun, a cavity with a pair of
grids and a repeller plate.
 A single pair of grids does the functions of both the buncher and
the catcher grids.
 Here, the output cavity is omitted .
 A repeller or reflector electrode is placed at a short distance from
the single cavity.
Basic Operation
 Velocity Modulation: The mechanism of variation in electron velocity in
the drift space is known as velocity modulation.
 The electron beam is modulated by passing it through an oscillating
resonant cavity.
 The feedback required to maintain oscillations within the cavity is obtained
by reversing the beam.
 Now, the beam passes through the cavity second time, thus, give up energy
to maintain oscillations.
 The electron beam is turned around by a repeller.
 This type of klystron oscillator is called a reflex klystron because of the
reflex action of the electron beam.
Working
 The cathode emits electrons, accelerated by an accelerating grid with a
positive voltage on it and focused into a narrow beam.
 The electrons pass through the cavity and undergo velocity modulation.
 This produces electron bunching and the beam is repelled back by a
repeller plate kept at a negative potential w.r.t cathode.
 On return, the electron beam once again enters the same grids.
 Thus grid simultaneously acts as a buncher for the forward moving
electron and as a catcher for the returning beam.
 Working
 The feedback necessary for electrical oscillations is developed by
reflecting the electron beam.
 The velocity modulated electron beam does not actually reach the
repeller plate, but is repelled back by the negative voltage.
 Thus the repeller voltage is so adjusted that complete bunching of the
electrons takes place at the catcher grids.
 The distance between the repeller and cavity is chosen such that the
repeller electron bunches will reach the cavity at proper time to be in
synchronization.
 Due to this, they deliver energy to the cavity, the result is the
oscillation at the cavity producing RF frequency.
Working
 The resonator potential also causes the resonant cavity to oscillate at its
natural frequency when the tube is energized.
 These oscillations cause an electrostatic field across the grid gap of the
cavity.
 The changing electrostatic field affects the electrons in the beam as they
pass through the grid gap.
 Some are accelerated and some are decelerated, depending upon the
polarity of the electrostatic field.
Modes of Operation
Operating Modes

 The reflex klystron operates in a different mode for each

additional cycle.
 Mode 1 is obtained when the repeller voltage produces an
electron transit time of 3/4 cycle.
 Mode 2 has an electron transit time of 1 3/4 cycles;
 Mode 3 has an electron transit time of 2 3/4 cycles.
 A range of four modes of operation are normally available.
 The actual mode used (1 3/4 cycles through 4 3/4 cycles, 2
3/4 cycles through 6 3/4 cycles, etc.) depends upon the
application.
OUTPUT POWER
 Output power varies with the amplitude of oscillations.
 Power and amplitude limitations are caused by the
DEBUNCHING process of the electrons in the repeller field
space.
 Debunching is simply the spreading out of
the electron bunches before they reach electrostatic fields
across the cavity grid.
 The lower concentration of electrons in the returning
bunches provides less power for delivery to the oscillating
cavity.
 This reduced power from the bunches, in turn, reduces
the amplitude of the cavity oscillations and causes a
decrease in output power.
Electronic Tuning
 It is refers to the tuning by altering the repeller voltage.
 Each mode has a center frequency of 3,000 megahertz
 Frequency is predetermined by the physical size of the cavity.
 The output power increases as the repeller voltage is made
more negative. This is because the transit time of
the electron bunches is decreased.
Electronic Tuning

 Electronic tuning does not change the center

frequency of the cavity.
 It vary the frequency within the mode of operation.
 The amount the frequency can be varied is limited
by the half-power points of the mode.
Performance characteristics

1. Frequency: 4 – 200 GHz

2. Power: 1 mW – 2.5 W
3. Theoretical efficiency : 22.78 %
4. Practical efficiency : 10 % - 20 %
5. Tuning range : 5 GHz at 2 W – 30 GHz at
10 mW
Comparison

Reflex Klystron Klystron

 A reflex klystron can  klystron can act as
act as only an both an amplifier and
oscillator. oscillator.
 It needs only one  It needs a buncher
cavity. cavity(sometimes
multiple bunchers) and
a catcher cavity.
Comparison

Reflex Klystron Klystron

 It bunches the  It bunches electrons in
electrons in reverse forward direction.
direction using a  It needs i/p
reflector plate. (accelerating or de-
 It does not need accelerating) signal.
i/p(accelerating or de-
accelerating) signal.
Applications

 The reflex klystrons are used in

1. Radar receivers.
2. Local oscillator in microwave receivers.
3. Signal source in microwave generator of variable
frequency.
4. Portable microwave links.
5. Pump oscillator in parametric amplifier.
One-port negative-resistance oscillator
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law

Since

Implies that

Negative resistance
implies energy source
The condition
controls the oscillation
Microwave Engineering, 3rd Edition by David M. Pozar, Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons
One-port negative-resistance oscillator…

 For steady-state oscillations

 Implies that the reflection coefficients L and in are related as

Problem
Solution

 Input impedance of the diode

 Either by smith chart of using formula

 Load impedance

 A shunt stub and series section of line can be used to convert 50  to ZL.
Load matching circuit for the one-port
oscillator

Microwave Engineering, 3rd Edition by David M. Pozar, Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons
Tunnel Diodes
 WHAT IS TUNNELING
• Classically, carrier must have energy at least equal to
potential-barrier height to cross the junction.
• But according to Quantum mechanics there is finite
probability that it can penetrate through the barrier for a thin
width.
• This phenomenon is called tunneling and hence the Esaki
Diode is know as Tunnel Diode.
 Tunnel Diodes (Esaki Diode)

Tunnel diode is the p-n junction device that exhibits negative resistance. That
means when the voltage is increased the current through it decreases.

Regular p-n Diode

Regular PN junction characteristics
Tunnel Diode
 Frequency of operation

8-12 GHz
X-band
Tunnel Diode Operation

 High conductivity two terminal PN junction

 Having high doping density about 1000 times higher than conventional PN
diode
 Fabricated from Gallium Arsenide(GaAs) and Gallium Antimonide (GaSb)
Energy level of intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors

Ec
0.56 eV
Ef

Intrinsic N-type P-type

ni = 1.45  1010 cm-3 n = 1017 cm-3 p = 1014 cm-3
Position of Fermi level as a function of
donor and acceptor concentration
Diode
Degenerately doped n-type and p-type
semiconductor
 Energy density > 1020 cm-3
 Tunnel Diode Operation

Under Forward Bias

Step 1: At zero bias there is no current flow

EC

EF

EV
 Operation of a Tunnel Diode

Step 2: A small forward bias is applied. Potential barrier is still very high –
no noticeable injection and forward current through the junction.
However, electrons in the conduction band of the n region will tunnel to the empty states of the
valence band in p region. This will create a forward bias
tunnel current

EC

EV
Direct tunneling current starts growing
 Tunnel Diode Operation

Step 3: With a larger voltage the energy of the majority of electrons in the
n-region is equal to that of the empty states (holes) in the valence band of
p-region; this will produce maximum tunneling current

EC

EV
Maximum Direct tunneling current
 Tunnel Diode Operation

Step 4: As the forward bias continues to increase, the number of electrons

in the n side that are directly opposite to the empty states in the valence
band (in terms of their energy) decrease. Therefore decrease in the tunneling current will
start.

EC

EV
Direct tunneling current decreases
 Tunnel Diode Operation

Step 5: As more forward voltage is applied, the tunneling current drops to

zero. But the regular diode forward current due to electron – hole injection
increases due to lower potential barrier.

EC

EV

No tunneling current; diffusion current starts growing

 Operation of a Tunnel Diode

Step 6: With further voltage increase, the tunnel diode I-V characteristic is
similar to that of a regular p-n diode.

EC

EV
 Operation of a Tunnel Diode
Under Reverse Bias

In this case the, electrons in the valence band of the p side tunnel
directly towards the empty states present in the conduction band of the n side creating large
tunneling current which increases with the application of reverse voltage.

The TD reverse I-V is similar to the Zener diode with nearly zero
breakdown voltage.

EC

EV
Applications

 Applications for tunnel diodes included local oscillators for UHF television
tuners, trigger circuits in oscilloscopes, high-speed counter circuits, and very
fast-rise time pulse generator circuits.
 The tunnel diode can also be used as low-noise microwave amplifier.
 However, since its discovery, more conventional semiconductor devices have
surpassed its performance using conventional oscillator techniques.
 For many purposes, a three-terminal device, such as a field-effect transistor,
is more flexible than a device with only two terminals.
Advantages
Very high speed: The high speed of operation means that the tunnel diode can be used
for microwave RF applications.
Longevity: Studies have been undertaken of the tunnel diode and its performance has
been shown to remain stable over long periods of time, where other semiconductor devices
may have degraded.

Disadvantages
Reproducibility: It has not been possible to make the tunnel diode with as reproducible
performance to the levels often needed.
Low peak to valley current ratio: The negative resistance region and the peak to valley
current is not as high as is often be required to produce the levels of performance that can
be attained with other devices.
Gunn diode
Transferred Electron Devices (TED)

 TED’s are semiconductor devices with no junctions and gates.

 They are fabricated from compound semiconductors like GaAs, InP, CdTe etc.

 TED’s operate with hot electrons whose energy is much greater than the
thermal energy.
Gunn Diode

 Invented by J.B Gunn

Gunn Effect:
 Above some critical voltage (Corresponding to Electric field of 2k-4k V/cm) the current passing
through n-type GaAs becomes a periodic fluctuating function of time.
 Frequency of oscillation is determined mainly by the specimen, not by the external circuit.
 Period of oscillation is inversely proportional to the specimen length and is equal to the transit time
of electrons between the electrodes
Two valley
model
theory
 Data for two valleys in GaAs
Electron transfer mechanism
Working

 In equilibrium at room temperature most electrons reside near the bottom of

the lower valley.
 Because of their high mobility (~ 8000 cm2V-1s-1), they can readily be
accelerated in a strong electric field to energies in the order of the lower to
higher inter-valley separation, delta E.
 Electrons are then able to scatter into the satellite L valley, resulting in a
decrease in the average electron mobility, μ.
Energy band diagram of GaAs
Gunn oscillation modes

 Gunn oscillation modes (efficiency < 10 %)

 Delayed domain mode (efficiency upto 20%)
 Quenched domain mode (efficiency upto 13%)
 LSA(Limited Space Charge Accumulation) mode (efficiency more than 20%)
Gunn Characteristics

 Power: 1W (Between 4HHz and 16GHz)

 Gain Bandwidth product : >10dB
 Average gain : 1 – 12 dB
 Noise figure : 15 dB
Applications of Gunn Diode

 Sensors and Measuring Instruments

 Low voltage sources
 Radio Astronomy
 Fast combinational and sequential logic circuit
 Low and medium power oscillators in microwave receivers
 As pump sources
Advantages and disadvantages

 Good efficiency
 Good temperature stability
 However, Gunn diode may get burned out easily
Table of Contents

• Introduction
• IMPATT Basics
• Principal of Operation
• Device Structure
• Performance Characteristics
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
• Applications
 Introduction

• The word IMPATT stands for IMPact Avalanche Transit Time.

• The IMPATT diode is an RF semiconductor device that is used for generating

microwave radio frequency signals.

• The IMPATT diode uses a reverse-biased pn junction to generate microwave power.

• Mostly used in high-frequency electronics and microwave devices.

• IMPATT exhibits negative resistance over abroad frequency band that extends into
the sub millimeter range, and can be used to directly convert DC to RF power.

• IMPATT has high power capability.

 IMPATT Basics

• IMPATT IONIZATION
o If a free electron with sufficient kinetic energy strikes a silicon atom, it can
break the covalent bond of silicon and liberate an electron from the
covalent bond. This process is known as IMPATT Ionization.

• Avalanche Multiplication
o If the electron liberated gains energy by being in an electric field and
liberates other electrons from other covalent bonds then this process can
cascade very quickly into a chain reaction producing a large number of
electrons and a large current flow. This phenomenon is called avalanche
multiplication.
 Principle of Operation

• The diode is operated under reverse bias

near breakdown conditions, and both the N
and N- regions are completely depleted
• Because of the difference in doping between
the "drift region" and "avalanche region", the
electric field is highly peaked in the
avalanche region and nearly flat in drift
region.
• Under this high potential gradient, the carriers
are accelerated very quickly. As a result they
collide with the crystal lattice and free other
carriers.
Fig 1
 Principle of Operation

• These newly freed carriers are similarly

accelerated and collide with the crystal lattice
freeing more carriers.
• This process gives rise to avalanche breakdown as
the number of carriers multiplies very quickly.
• This generates a large number of hole-electron
pairs by impact ionization.
• The holes are swept into the cathode (p region),
but the electrons travel across the drift region
toward anode (N region).
• The time required for the hole to reach the Fig 1
contact constitutes the transit time delay.
 Principle of Operation

• As the electrons drift, they induce image

charges on the anode, giving rise to a
displacement current in the external
circuit that is 180° out of phase with the
nearly sinusoidal voltage waveform
• The Figure 2 shows the buildup of
microwave oscillations in the diode current
and voltage when the diode is embedded
in a resonant cavity and biased at
breakdown

Fig 2
 Principle of Operation

Fig 3

• Figure 3 shows a close-up of the current and voltage waveforms after oscillations have
been stabilized. It is clear from Fig. 3 that the current is 180° out of phase with the voltage
• This represents a NEGATIVE AC RESISTANCE
 Advantages

• IMPATT are capable of higher powers than Gunn diodes.

• IMPATT are capable of higher DC to RF conversion efficiencies

than Gunn diodes.

• IMPATT have better temperature stability than Gunn diodes.

 Disadvantages

• IMPATT AM noise level is generally higher than that of other

sources. It is caused by the avalanche effect on which they
operate.

• IMPATTs need hi voltage usually 70V – 100V to achieve a

reverse-biased avalanche breakdown current.

• Noise figure for IMPATT is about 30 dB which is very high as

compared to other devices such as klystron, gunn diode and
TWT amplifier.

• IMPATT tuning range is also not as good as Gunn diode.

 Applications
• IMPATT diodes are ideal where small cost effective microwave radio sources
are needed.
• IMPATT devices can also be used for frequency multiplication and
amplification.
• These diodes make excellent microwave generators for many applications.
• In view of its high levels of phase noise it is used in transmitters more
frequently than as a local oscillator in receivers where the phase noise
performance is generally more important.
• However, the negative resistance property of IMPATT diode can be used in
oscillator
• The stable region of operation can be used to amplify the RF signals
• The main advantage is their high power capability. These diodes are used in
a variety of applications such as low power radar systems, alarms and the
detectors using RF technology.
TRAPATT DIODE
Physical structure

 TRAPPED PLASMA AVALANCHE TRANSIT TIME DIODE

 High peak power diodes
 Typically silicon n+ -p-p+ (or p+ -n-n+) structures
 N-type depletion width varies from 2.5 to 12.5 m
 P+ region width varies from 2.5 to 7.5 m
 Diameter ranges from
 As small as 50 m for CW operation
 To 750 m at lower frequency for high-peak power devices
 Doping of the n-type depletion region is generally such that the diodes
are well ‘punched through’ at breakdown
 DC electric field in the depletion region just prior to breakdown is
well above the saturated drift-velocity level
Power output and efficiency

 High output power and high efficiencies

 Efficiency is high because the voltage is very low during plasma
extraction period
 1.2kW pulse power has been obtained at 1.1GHz
 Efficiency of 75% has been achieved at 0.6GHz
 Noise figure is higher than IMPATT diode (extremely large
fluctuations occur in the startup of the current by the
avalanche multiplication)
 Operates at comparatively low frequencies below 10GHz (large
extraction time of electron-hole plasma)
Principle of operation

 Formation of electron-hole plasma begins at p+ - n junction

 Travels across n region to n-n+ junction leaving n region filled
with trapped plasma
 The apparent velocity of the plasma should be much larger than
the saturation velocity of electrons and holes in the
semiconductor for proper operation
 The plasma is formed by exciting electrons below the valence
band into states above conduction band
 The result is generation of a gaseous conductor (plasma) in
picoseconds
Principle of operation cont..

 A pulse generator with an amplitude larger than the breakdown voltage of

the diode is applied to the diode in the reverse direction
 When the pulse is applied to the circuit the diode will first break
down (the diode will look like a zener diode)
 If the amplitude of the driving signal is large enough the diode will go
into the second break down ( destruction of the diode is usually
associated with the second breakdown)
 If the amount of energy passed through the diode is limited
destruction is avoided (narrow pulses <10ns)
 The transition from primary breakdown to secondary breakdown can
occurs in tens of picoseconds
 During this time the trapped plasma is being formed within the diode
Voltage and Current waveforms
Principle of operation cont..

 Period 1
 Diode voltage rises significantly above breakdown voltage (point A)
followed by a sudden drop in the voltage and rise in the current as
the electron-hole plasma fills the depletion region

 Period 2
 Initially the field is low and carriers move out of the depletion region
with a velocity lower than saturation velocity
 Once the plasma is extracted the diode voltage recovers with a
subsequent increase in electric field
 During this period current stays close to its maximum value, but
suddenly drops to a very low value at the end when no carriers are
left in the n zone.
Principle of operation cont..

 Period 3
 Current remains low and the voltage stays at a high-level
 At the end of the period an overvoltage pulse restores the situation to that at the
start of the period 1
TRAPATT Oscillator Capabilities
BARITT DIODE
M-n-M diode
Current Vs Voltage
Power output
Q&A