Practical Research 1

Nature of Inquiry and Research Advancement of the Researcher’s Expertise

Inquiry As researchers conduct more investigations, they do not only verify

theories or discover new ideas and technologies, but also gain
• It is asking questions to obtain information. relevant experiences that enhance and deepen their knowledge and
skills in the area of their investigations.
• It is an investigation to discover information that could add to an
existing knowledge to clarify doubts and even solve existing
problems.
Functions of RESEARCH?
• An inquiry can be launched to get behind the common • Exploration
understanding of certain issues, events, and circumstances that
• Description
are otherwise difficult to comprehend due to some missing
• Explanation
information.
• • It involves checking the credibility and validity of available To explore
information, clarifying points of view, and drawing inferences,
conclusions, and meaning. Exploratory research is best utilized in pioneering studies that focus
• The process relies upon collective and even interdisciplinary on topics that have not been investigated before or that use new
efforts that can be put together to come up with credible techniques in collecting and analyzing data. It allows the researcher
information to become familiar with the topic, come up with new ideas, direct the
research questions, and find out how to best approach the topic
Research under study.

• The word research, on the other hand, can be broken down into To describe
“re” and “search” to mean “to look again.”
• It is reexamining and reinvestigating a particular topic or issue The researcher dives into the field of study and simply describes what
following logical answers. he or she has found out about it. This is done by painting a vivid
• There are three major steps in the process of research: asking picture of the scenario or phenomenon using detailed descriptions of
the question, finding the right data to answer the questions, and what the researchers sees, feels, hears, tastes, and smells
presenting an answer to the question based on the processed
data. (Creswell, 2002) To explain

Another reason why people conduct research is to explain things,

Aims of RESEARCH? events, and phenomena, discovering the answers to “why” is has
become so. Such research can be utilized to support or refute an
• Verification of existing knowledge explanation and link issues to existing theories and frameworks.
• Acquisition of new knowledge
• Application of new knowledge The Research Process
• Advancement of researcher’s expertise
1. Identification of the problem
Verification of Existing Knowledge
The first step in research writing is to identify and problematize an
Research is aimed at verifying or proving the veracity of existing area of interest. The researcher points out the area that needs further
theories or knowledge. This verification may lead to the study or investigation given the current state of knowledge on the
development of new ideas, strengthening a current knowledge, or matter
debunking a theory.
2. Literature Review
Acquisition of New Knowledge
After the problem has been identified, the researcher checks for
Aside from strengthening the veracity of a theory, research also related materials on the topic that are available that could serve as a
brings forth new ideas regarding a theory or even create a totally new starting point or reference for the study. The materials provide the
theory. initial view of the extent of efforts done to study the topic as well as
the areas that need further research often called the gap. The
Application of New Knowledge research gap will be the basis for the purpose of the study.

Once new ideas or innovations are proven true, they are then utilized Settings of the Study
and translated to something useful to humankind. It is only through
This contains the purpose of the study, the research questions, and
utilizing the results of research that once can truly fulfill the ultimate
the way the study will be conducted or the methodology. The purpose
purpose of research, that is, to alleviate people’s quality of life.
of the study explains why the study is needed. It identifies the social value. The results of the study can be the basis for decisions,
importance of the study in terms of its contribution to the discipline intervention programs, or plans for improvement.
as well as its impact on society or its social value.
Sample: Teacher-Parent Collaborative Ethics in Facilitating Students'
The research questions narrow down the problem to manageable and Homework
feasible tasks which will be carried out in the methodology.
Methodology describes how to obtain and process the materials and The study highlighted the role of teachers in initiating collaboration
information needed to answer the research questions with parents in doing the homework of the students (Miguel &
Abulon, 2019).
Collecting, Analyzing and Interpreting Data
It can inform policy.
At this stage, the materials and needed information are gathered,
analyzed, and interpreted. The treatment of the data depends on the The results of a research study can be a starting point for changing
approach that will be used appropriate for the study. policies that could affect the whole organization, community, or
society. A policy, law, or regulation can be drawn as a response or
Evaluation and Report Writing intervention to the new information obtained in a research study.

Sample: Urban Poor and Climate Adaptation: The Issue of Equity in

From the analyzed data, conclusion and learning are drawn. The
Two Emerging Urban Areas of Eastern Indonesia
conclusion is the synthesized answer to the research questions which
is also the answer to the problem identified in the study. The The study looked at equity issue in the climate adaptation
conclusion of the study will be the basis for the recommendations particularly in the context of the urban poor (Fathoni, 2018)
that define the actions and interventions that could impact the
context where the problem emanates. From this point, the researcher Characteristics of a Good Research
is now ready to write the whole research paper.
The qualities of a good research can be derived from how effective
Community Application and Utilization of Research and efficient it is in achieving its purpose to create a value. The
qualities can be summarized into five major characteristics:
This is the stage where the result of the study is disseminated back to
the community. For a research to make an impact on society, it is
Rigorous - The conduct of research must be systematic,
important that it is shared especially with the community concerned.
scientific, and logical. It must follow clear and logical procedures
This is best complemented with a plan on how research will be utilized
aimed at answering the research problem. Each step must be
to realize its full potential in creating a social value.
properly justified in terms of appropriateness

Importance of Doing Research Replicable - The procedures utilized in research must be

replicable in other contexts and the results must have a wide range
Research is important in the creation of value that can be classified in of applicability. It is not enough that the results are only true for a
three ways (Creswell 2012): single situation. They must have a certain degree of generalizability
• It adds to the existing body of knowledge
Accurate - The data that will be used to answer the questions
• It can improve or enhance current policies.
must be representative of the actual responses of the participants or
• It can inform
actual data as recorded in the instruments used
It adds to the existing body of knowledge.
Objective - In the analysis of data, the personal bias of the
The findings in a research study can provide added information to researcher must be managed well. Personal inclinations or desired
better understand issues or phenomena by confirming or contesting results must be always avoided. Otherwise, the result will not be
previous results. Research can likewise be a way to break ground on credible
areas of interest that have not been investigated or studied before.
Ethical - Data or information from respondents must be handled
The result will become the basis or reference for further studies.
with utmost confidentiality and honesty. Credit must also be given
Sample: College Educators Life Balance during K-12 where it is due

Ethics in Research
Transition: Focus on Wellness

The study explored the relationship of K-12 Action Plans to educators'

life balance (Ramos, 2019) The following is a general summary of some ethical principles that
researchers must observed:
It can improve or enhance current practices.
HONESTY - Strive for honesty in all scientific communications.
It can improve or enhance current practices. Research can evaluate
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and
current practices in terms of effectiveness and efficiency.
publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
Effectiveness refers to the ability of a practice to produce the set goal
or social value, while efficiency refers to the facility in producing the
Practical Research 1
not totally avoided. Proper procedures should be developed to
OBJECTIVITY - Strive to avoid bias in experimental design,
minimize the effects of errors.
data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions,
grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where ACTIVE
objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-
deception. Researchers always respond to the challenges of the modern world.
They get involved in all research opportunities
INTEGRITY - Keep your promises and agreements; act with
sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action. PRACTICALITY

CAREFULNESS - Avoid careless errors and negligence; Another good quality that a researcher must emulate is practicality.
carefully and critically examine your own work. Keep good records of In the event where resources are limited, researchers must be able
research activities such as data collection, research design, and to find ways to make use of the given resources and locally available
correspondence with agencies. materials to compensate for the things needed without
compromising the quality of the research output. They must also be
OPENNESS - Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be aware of other sources of opportunities to deliver what are expected
open to criticism and new ideas. from their research studies.

RESPECT FOR INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY - INVENTIVENESS

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property.
Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without Researchers always have novel ideas. If a method is not feasible, they
permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper have alternative procedures to attain the objectives of the research.
acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never They always try to find unique or new ways to handle difficulties in
plagiarize. solving a problem

CONFIDENTIALITY - Protect confidential communications HONESTY

and personal information of your respondents, if any
Researchers display a high level of intellectual honesty. They are not
Characteristics of a SUCCESSFUL swayed to what is expected, but rather to what is true. Regardless of
the results of their investigations, good researchers report accurately
RESEARCHER their findings in their reports. In the event of contrasting results, they
find reasons for the cause of the conflict.
CURIOSITY
COST-EFFECTIVENESS
A successful researcher is curious and determined to investigate the
intricacy of things. Taking pleasure in reading research journals, in Because of limited resources, successful researchers make it a point
finding out different trends in research, and in discovering and that these resources will not be wasted. To them, every single peso
learning new things is also a trait of a curious individual. is important and must be utilized properly.

EFFICIENCY Types of RESEARCH?

It is manifested in the proper use of time, effort, and resources for • Basic versus Applied Research
an intended purpose. In other words, it means doing things right.
• Qualitative versus Quantitative Research
Qualitative researcher must be efficient in managing research
• Mixed Methods
schedules because most often they deal with people, soliciting
• Other Research Types
cooperation and time when gathering data.

LOGIC
BASIC VERSUS APPLIED
Researchers do not venture on any method to attain their goals. They
usually follow procedures identified to the scientific method in finding Basic or pure research if the aim is to come up with a new
out answers to their queries. Because of this use of the scientific knowledge or contribute to the existing body of knowledge. An
method, researchers are described to be logical. explanation is introduced about an existing (or new) idea

Applied Research if the aim is to find applications for the

EFFECTIVENESS
theories or create a product employing the existing idea or theory.
Being effective means doing the right things. Researchers must know
how to foresee errors, so that they can be addressed immediately, if
 QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE It is at risk for research biases including information bias, omitted
variable bias, sampling bias, or selection bias
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH employs qualitative method and
This type of research is also used in testing hypothesis and theories
deals with the characteristics observed from the respondents with
and is useful when developing quantitative models to predict future
minimal to no use of statistical analysis.
events and the likelihood of its outcomes based on past events or
It can be described generally as being concerned with the details of scenarios. In example, its application has been manifested during the
phenomenon as experienced by the participants. It also deals with the COVID 19 pandemic, when predicting new infection case, the efficacy
narrative responses of the participants rate of vaccines and medications, pandemic-related survey and polls.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH uses quantitative procedures

where the respondents’ trait are translated numerically. It focuses on
the analysis and interpretation of the raw numerical data gathered
based on statistical outcomes.

It answers the problem by describing the trend in a set of data often

presented as frequency or percentage, or by establishing the effect or
relationship of variables of the study using statistical computation.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN
DAILY LIFE During elections, we have anticipated the standing of the candidates
for national election. To simply state, the application of quantitative
When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with research can be seen everywhere and is broadly applied in the field
numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words of education, social studies, economics, governance, business,
and meanings. Both are important for gaining different kinds of sociology, medicine, and psychology.
knowledge

Quantitative Data Collection Methods

✔ Surveys ✔ Experiments ✔ Observations

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand
Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you
to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can to gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.
be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.
Practical Research 1
It is also at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne
effect, observer bias, recall bias, and social desirability bias.
Qualitative Research Approach
This type of research is used to answer questions about experience,
meaning and perspective, most often from the standpoint of the You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students and ask
participant. These data are usually not amenable to counting or them open-ended questions such as: “How satisfied are you with your
measuring. In example, a current study was conducted to have an in- studies?”, “What is the most positive aspect of your study program?”
depth exploration on the experiences of health-care staff working and “What can be done to improve the study program?
during the COVID-19 crisis.
Based on the answers you get you can ask follow-up
questions to clarify things. You transcribe all interviews using
transcription software and try to find commonalities and patterns.

Philosophical Perspectives of
Quantitative and Qualitative
Research Methodologies

Qualitative Data Collection Methods

✔ Interviews ✔ Focus groups ✔ Ethnography ✔

Literature Review

When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research?

A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or
quantitative data is:

✔ Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something

(a theory or hypothesis)

✔ Use qualitative research if you want to understand something

(concepts, thoughts, experiences

RESEARCH DESIGN
Qualitative Research Method
(Interpretivism)

• Case study research

• Ethnographic research (or ethnography) 3
• Historical research
• Narrative research
Quantitative Research Approach • Grounded theory research
• Phenomenology research
You survey 300 students at your university and ask them
questions such as: “on a scale from 1-5, how satisfied are you with Case Study Research
your professors?

You can perform statistical analysis on the data and draw • Researchers focus on a unit of study or bounded system (e.g., a
student, a classroom, or a school is considered as a case) – as
conclusions such as: “on average students rated their professors 4.4”
small group as one student.
• The term case study is also used for the product of case study • The researcher typically focuses on a single person and gathers
research data by collecting stories about the person’s life. The researcher
• Case study research is appropriate when the researcher wants and participant then construct a written account, know as a
to answer a descriptive question (e.g., what happened?) or narrative about the individual’s experience and the meanings
explanatory question (e.g., how or why did something happen? the individual attributes to the experiences (Gay, Mills &
• Example of research question that can be examined with case Airasian, 2009, p.12
study research: How do doctors and nurses manage and cope
with multiple innovations? Phenomenological Research

Ethnographic Research (or ethnography) • Phenomenological research is a qualitative research approach

that seeks to understand and describe the universal essence of a
• Examine the cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in phenomenon.
their natural settings (e.g., a village, college, office) • The approach investigates the everyday experiences of human
• Focuses on a particular site or sites that provide the researcher beings while suspending the researchers’ preconceived
with a context in which to study both the setting and the assumptions about the phenomenon.
participants who inhabit it • In other words, phenomenological research studies lived
• The participants are observed as they take part in naturally experiences to gain deeper insights into how people understand
occurring activities within the setting those experiences.
• Example of research question that can be examined with
Social scientists use phenomenological inquiry to:
ethnographic research: What is the working culture of managers
in a multinational company? o Research lived experiences of human beings and gain insights
into their actions and motivations.
Historical Research o Broaden their knowledge about a certain phenomenon.
o Create awareness about the phenomenon.
• Focuses primarily on the past o Clarifying the relationships between lived experiences and the
• Some aspect of the past is studied by perusing documents of the theories used to explain those experiences.
period, by examining relics, or by interviewing individuals who o Contribute to the development of new theories
lived during the time (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2010, p.534)
• An attempt is then made to reconstruct what happened during Example of Phenomenological Research
that time as completely and as accurately as possible and
• The Experiences Of Every War Survivor Or War Veteran Are
(usually) to explained why it happened- although this can never
Unique. Research Can Illuminate Their Mental States And
be fully accomplished since information from and about the past
Survival Strategies In A New World.
is always incomplete (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2010, p.534)
• Losing Family Members To Covid-19 Hasn’t Been Easy. A Detailed
• Attempt to describe, explain and understand actions or events
Study Of Survivors And People Who’ve Lost Loved Ones Can Help
that happened in the past
Understand Coping Mechanisms And Long-Term Traumas.
• Primary sources (Berger, 2011, p.161):
• What’s It Like To Be Diagnosed With A Terminal Disease When A
1. Newspaper articles
Person Becomes A Parent? The Conflict Of Birth And Death Can’t
2. Records from diaries
Be Generalized, But Research Can Record Emotions And
3. Data from diaries
Experiences.
4. Speeches
5. Interviews Grounded Theory
6. Autobiographies – write something on him/herself
• Secondary sources (Berger, 2011, p.161):
• Grounded theory (GT) is a research method concerned with the
1. Articles by other historians
generation of theory, which is ‘grounded’ in data that has been
2. Articles and books by scholars
systematically collected and analysed.
3. Idea from philosophers
• It is used to uncover such things as social relationships and
4. Editorials
behaviours of groups, known as social processes.
5. Commentaries \
• It is a general methodology for developing theory that is
6. Biographies – write something on other person life
grounded in data which is systematically gathered and analysed
• Example of research questions that can be examined with historical
Features of Grounded Theory
research: 1. How were students educated in Malaysia during the
British colonization? 2. What has been the role of the federal • Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously.
government of Malaysia in education? • Categories and analytic codes developed from data. Pre-existing
conceptualizations not to be used—this is known as theoretical
Narrative Research sensitivity (see below).
• Theoretical sampling used to refine categories.
• The study of how people experience the world around them
• Abstract categories constructed inductively.
• It allows people to tell the stories of their life
• Social processes discovered in the data.
Practical Research 1
• Analytical memos used between coding and writing.
• Categories integrated into a theoretical framework.
Correlational research
Example of Grounded Theory
• Collecting data to ascertain: (i) Whether a relation exist
In a study carried out by Beech et al, the authors sought to explore between two or more variables and (ii) To what degree the
patient participant experiences of recovery following surgical relation exists
intervention for colorectal cancer. They opted to use GT because • The degree of relation is expressed as a correlation coefficient (a
previous studies had sought to answer this research question by value ranging from 1.00 to +1.00)
measuring quantifiable biomedical markers, such as symptoms of -1 < r < 1 0 = no relationship
pain, insomnia or fatigue. According to the authors, there was a
paucity of empirical literature around the topic from a holistic
perspective, for example social, psychological and cultural aspects of
a person's well-being.

Quantitative Research Method

(Positivism)
• Survey Research
• Correlational research
• Causal-comparative research
• Experimental research • Two variables that are not related have a correlation coefficient
• Single-subject research of zero
• A correlation coefficient near +1.00 indicates a highly/ strongly
positive correlation
Survey Research • A correlation coefficient near 1.00 indicates a highly/ strongly
negative correlation
• Collecting numerical data to test hypotheses or answer
• A positive correlation: As the value of one variable increases, the
questions about the current status of the subject of study.
value of other variable also increases. E.g., students with higher
• Assessing the preferences, attitudes, perceptions, practices,
scores in mathematics also have higher scores in physics
concerns or interests of a group of people
• A negative correlation: As the value of one variable increases,
• Data are mainly collected through questionnaires, interviews or
the value of other variable decreases. E.g., students with high
observations
CGPA have the least likelihood of dropping out.
• Find out the preferences, etc…
• Results of correlational studies do not suggest cause- effect
• Use SPSS program to analysis the data
relations among variables
• 1000 participants are the norm – if you need 1000 participants,
• Examples of research questions that can be examined with
you need to send out 2500 survey instruments as the return rate
correlational research: 1. What is the relation between IQ and
was approximately 40%.
self- esteem? 2. Does a statistic aptitude test predict success in
• Arrange the statements to some positive statement and some
a statistic course? (if the correlation is high, the aptitude test is
negative statement to minimize the problem of some
a good predictor of success in a statistics)
participants that just circle all the same number – so they have
to read before answer Causal-Comparative Research
• Report in the writing report the limitation of the survey method
• Major challenges: Participants (i) Failure to return • Attempts to determine the cause-effect relations among groups
questionnaires (ii) Willingness to be surveyed over the phone • Attempts to determine the cause (or reason) for the existing
(iii) Ability to attend scheduled interviews differences in the behavior or status of groups of individuals
• If the response rate is low, researcher unable to draw valid • The cause (i.e., the behavior or characteristic believed to
trustworthy conclusions influence some other behavior or characteristic) is known as the
grouping variable. The effect or result (i.e., the change or
• Use four-point Likert Scale items ranging from Strongly Disagree difference in a behavior or characteristic) is known as the
to Strongly Agree dependent variable (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009,p.10)
• Try to avoid “neutral”, “not sure”, “undecided” • A weakness of causal-comparative research: Other relevant
• Call the participants if incomplete and your target is not meet, variables (extraneous variables) that may affect the outcome
but is have more than enough, then just forget about it (dependant variables) or the study are NOT controlled.
• Thus, causal-comparative research provides limited cause-effect
information
• True cause-effect relations can be determined only through
experimental research (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009, p.10)
• When experimental research is inappropriate or unethical, clear evidence for linking variables (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2009,
causal-comparative research is more appropriate. E.g., research p.11)
on the effect of heavy smoking on lung cancer. It is unethical to • True experimental research also provides generalizabilty (i.e.
ask one group of people to smoke heavily because of the applicability of findings to other settings and contexts
potential harm to those who were forced to smoke
• Example of research question that can be examined with causal- Single Subject Research
comparative research: 1. How does having a single-parent
family affect a student’s academic achievement? (Grouping • In single subject research, the researchers compare a single
variable is the type of family: single- parent family and two- person’s behavior before treatment to behavior exhibited during
parent family. Dependent variable is academic achievement. the experiment
The researcher identifies one group of students who comes • May also study a number of people together as one group
from a single-parent family and another group of students who • In single-subject experimental designs, the researchers study the
comes from a two-parent family and see it they differ in their behavior change that an individual or group exhibits as a result
achievement of some intervention or treatment (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2009,
p.11). In these designs, the size of the sample is considered as
Experimental Research one – one group

• In experimental research, researcher manipulates at least one Criteria for Selecting a Research
independent variable, controls other relevant variables
(extraneous variables) that may affect the outcome (dependent Methodology
variables) of the study and observes the effect on one or more
dependent variables According to Creswell (2014), there are several criteria in determining
• The independent variable (IV) also know as treatment, causal or your research methodology:
experimental variable is the treatment or characteristic believed
• Research Problem and Questions • Personal Experiences •
to make a difference.
Audience
• E.g. of IVs: 1. Method of instruction 2. Type of reinforcement 3.
Arrangement of learning environment 4. Type of learning
materials 5. Length of treatment
• 3 types of experimental study
1. Pre-experiment study
2. True experiment study
3. Quasi experiment study
• The dependent variable (DV) also known as criterion, effect or
posttest variable is the outcome of the study, the change or
difference in groups that occurs as a result of the independent
variable (IV)
• The DV can be measured by a test or some other quantitative
measure (e.g., attendance, time on task)

Manipulation and Control

• Manipulation of an independent variable (IV). What does it
mean? It means that the researcher choose the treatments and
determines which group will receive which treatment
• Control refers to the researcher’s efforts to remove the influence
of any variable (extraneous variable), other than the
independent variable (IV), that may affect performance on
dependent variable (DV) – can control other variables except
independent variable
• In other words, in an experimental design, the groups should
differ only on the independent variable (IV). E.g., time of tutoring
must be controlled (must be the same) in order to make a fair
comparison of the effectiveness of tutoring of peer tutors and
parent tutor
• In experimental research, the researchers compare the effects
of different treatment (or treatment versus no treatment) on Mixed Method Research (Pragmativism)
two or more groups of people
• True experimental research provides the strongest results of any • Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in a single
of the quantitative research approaches because it provides study
Practical Research 1
• Build on the synergy and strength that exists between • The strengths of the qualitative data offset the weaknesses of
quantitative and qualitative research methods to understand a the quantitative data and vice versa
phenomenon more fully than is possible using either • How to Identify Studies That Using Mixed Methods Designs? The
quantitative or qualitative methods alone (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, study title includes such terms as quantitative and qualitative,
2009, p.462) mixed methods, integrated, triangular or other terms that
• Provide an understanding both broad (e.g., from survey results) suggest a mixture of methods
and deep (e.g., from interview data)
• Not possible to achieve such and understanding through a Nature of Variables
quantitative or qualitative design alone
Variables
• In research, a variable refers to a “characteristics that has two or
more mutually exclusive values or properties” (Sevilla and Other,
1988).
• “Object of the Study”

VARIABLES SCALE OF MEASURE

Nominal Level / Ordinal Level / Interval Level / Ratio Level

Qualitative – no formula to determine the number of sample

Quantitative will help if we have more number and there is a

formula to determine the number of sample to start off analysis
whenever you get the data

QUAL – quan Model NOMINAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

• Known as the sequential exploratory mixed methods designs • Data are qualitative only
• Qualitative data are collected first • Calculated using names, labels, or qualities
• Qualitative data are more heavily weighted (dominant) than • No mathematical computations can be made at this level
quantitative data • Ex. Colors in the Philippine flag, Subjects you are taking this
• Phase 1 – using qualitative semester, Names of classmates in your class
• Phase 2 – using quantitative
ORDINAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
QUAN – qual Mod
• Data are qualitative or quantitative
• Known as the sequential explanatory mixed methods designs • Arranged in order, but differences between data entries are not
• Quantitative data are collected first meaningful
• Quantitative data are more heavily weighted (dominant) than • Ex. Numbers on the back of each player’s shirt, Class standings:
qualitative data freshman, sophomore, junior, senior, Top 50 songs played on the
radio
QUAL – QUAN Model
INTERVAL LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
• Known as the concurrent triangulation mixed methods designs
• Data are quantitative
• A zero entry simply represents a position on a scale; the entry is
not an inherent zero
• Quantitative and qualitative data are collected concurrently
throughout the study
• Quantitative and qualitative data are equally weighted
• Arranged in order, the differences between data entries can be
calculated

CONTROLLED VARIABLE

• Is an extraneous (unimportant) variable that an investigator

does not wish to examine in a study
• Something that is constant and unaffected in an experiment

RATIO LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

• Data are similar to interval level, but a zero entry is meaningful

• Ex. Ages, grade point averages, weights

Kind of Variables
DEPENDENT VARIABLE

• Is simply a variable that is dependent on an independent

variable/s
• Something that depends on the factor

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE CONFOUNDING VARIABLES

• Experimental/ controlled/ predictor variable • Is a variable that makes vague the effects of another variable
• Variable that is being manipulated in an experiment in order to • An outside influence that changes the effect of a dependent and
examine the effect this has on a dependent variable (outcome independent variable
variable)