NED Entry Test

Mathematics Complete Handbook

Algebra to Complex Numbers — Theory, Formulas, Tricks & Solved Examples

Includes:

ˆ 11 Full Chapters with Theory + Solved Examples

ˆ Formula Boxes, Theorems & Memory Tricks
ˆ Common Mistakes and NED-style MCQ Tips
ˆ Complete Formula Sheet
ˆ Last-Minute Revision Notes
ˆ 1-Hour-Before-Exam Revision Guide

Prepared for focused last-mile revision

2
Contents

1 Algebra & Quadratic Equations 5

1.1 Algebraic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Factorization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 The Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Nature of Roots (Discriminant) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Sum and Product of Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Polynomial Remainder & Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Common MCQ Tricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Matrices 9
2.1 Matrix Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Matrix Multiplication & Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Inverse of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Adjoint Method (for 3Ö3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Solving Linear Equations with Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 Important Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.9 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Sequence & Series 13

3.1 Arithmetic Progression (AP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Geometric Progression (GP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Infinite Geometric Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 Harmonic Progression (HP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5 Sigma Notation & Standard Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6 Pattern Recognition Tricks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.7 Practice Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.8 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Permutations, Combinations & Probability 17

4.1 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.2 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 Circular Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5 Binomial Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.6 Probability Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.7 Conditional Probability & Independent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.8 Bayes’ Theorem (Basic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.9 Expected MCQs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3
4 CONTENTS

4.10 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

5 Trigonometry 21
5.1 Trigonometric Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Standard Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.3 ASTC Rule (Sign of Ratios by Quadrant) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.4 All Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.5 Compound Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.6 Double-Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.7 Half-Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.8 Product-to-Sum and Sum-to-Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.10 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.11 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.12 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

6 Functions & Limits 25

6.1 Types of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2 Domain and Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.3 Composite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.4 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.5 Limits — One-Sided and Standard Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.6 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.7 Important Shortcuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.8 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

7 Differentiation 29
7.1 Derivative from First Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.2 Power Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.3 Product and Quotient Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7.4 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.5 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.6 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.7 Standard Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.8 Applications: Tangents & Normals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.9 Other Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.10 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

8 Integration 33
8.1 Basic Integration Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.2 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.3 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.4 Partial Fractions (Basic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.5 Trigonometric Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.6 Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.7 Area Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.8 Expected MCQs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.9 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
CONTENTS 5

9 Analytic Geometry 37
9.1 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.2 Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
9.3 Conics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.3.1 Parabola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.3.2 Ellipse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.3.3 Hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.4 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

10 Vectors 41
10.1 Magnitude and Unit Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10.2 Addition and Scalar Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10.3 Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10.4 Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.5 Angle Between Two Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.6 Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.7 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
10.8 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

11 Complex Numbers 45
11.1 The Imaginary Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.2 Complex Numbers and the Argand Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.3 Modulus and Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.4 Conjugates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.5 Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.6 De Moivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.7 Roots of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.8 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Complete Formula Sheet 49

Last-Minute Revision Notes & Most Expected MCQs 53

1-Hour-Before-Exam Revision Guide 55

6 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Algebra & Quadratic Equations

1.1 Algebraic Identities

These identities appear constantly in factorization and simplification MCQs — memorize them cold.
Core Identities

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
(a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)

Urdu Hint
Yaad rakhne ka aasan tareeqa: square wali identity mein hamesha do martaba cross term aata hai
(2ab), aur cube wali mein cross terms teen martaba (coefficient 3) aate hain.

Memory Trick
If a + b = p and ab = q are given, then a2 + b2 = p2 − 2q and a3 + b3 = p3 − 3pq. This saves you
from expanding brackets in MCQs — just plug into these two shortcuts.

1.2 Factorization Techniques

ˆ Common factor: take out the GCF first, always.

ˆ Grouping: ax + ay + bx + by = a(x + y) + b(x + y) = (a + b)(x + y).

ˆ Difference of squares: a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b).

ˆ Sum/difference of cubes: use the cube identities above.

ˆ Splitting the middle term for ax2 + bx + c: find two numbers whose product is ac and sum is b.

ˆ Quadratic in disguise: expressions like x4 − 5x2 + 4 factor as a quadratic in x2 .

7
8 CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRA & QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Example 1 — Splitting the Middle Term

Factorize 6x2 + 11x − 10.
Product = 6 × (−10) = −60, sum = 11. The pair is 15 and −4.

6x2 + 15x − 4x − 10 = 3x(2x + 5) − 2(2x + 5) = (3x − 2)(2x + 5)

Example 2 — Quadratic in Disguise

Factorize x4 − 5x2 + 4.
Let y = x2 : y 2 − 5y + 4 = (y − 1)(y − 4), so

x4 − 5x2 + 4 = (x2 − 1)(x2 − 4) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 2)

Common Mistake
Students often forget to fully factor after grouping — e.g. stopping at (x−1)(x+1)(x2 −4) instead
of continuing to (x − 2)(x + 2). Always check if a factor can be broken down further.

1.3 Completing the Square

To solve ax2 + bx + c = 0 by completing the square:

b c
1. Divide through by a: x2 + x + = 0.
a a
b c
2. Move constant: x2 + x = − .
a a
 2
b
3. Add to both sides.
2a
4. Write left side as a perfect square and solve.
Example 3
Solve x2 + 6x + 5 = 0 by completing the square.

x2 + 6x = −5 ⇒ x2 + 6x + 9 = 4 ⇒ (x + 3)2 = 4 ⇒ x + 3 = ±2

So x = −1 or x = −5.

1.4 The Quadratic Formula

Quadratic Formula
For ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ̸= 0): √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a

Completing the square on the general equation is exactly how this formula is derived — if NED
asks for the derivation, reproduce the steps in Section 1.3 with a, b, c instead of numbers.
1.5. NATURE OF ROOTS (DISCRIMINANT) 9

1.5 Nature of Roots (Discriminant)

Discriminant

D = b2 − 4ac
ˆ D > 0: two distinct real roots (rational if D is a perfect square, irrational otherwise)
ˆ D = 0: two equal real roots (repeated root)
ˆ D < 0: two complex conjugate roots

Example 4
For what value of k does x2 + kx + 9 = 0 have equal roots?
Equal roots ⇒ D = 0 ⇒ k 2 − 36 = 0 ⇒ k = ±6.

1.6 Sum and Product of Roots

Root Relations
If α, β are roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0:
b c
α+β =− , αβ =
a a
A quadratic with roots α, β can be rebuilt as

x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0

Memory Trick
Useful derived combinations (very common in MCQs):

α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ
1 1 α+β
+ =
α β αβ
(α − β) = (α + β)2 − 4αβ
2

α3 + β 3 = (α + β)3 − 3αβ(α + β)

Example 5
If α, β are roots of 2x2 − 7x + 3 = 0, find α2 + β 2 .
α + β = 72 , αβ = 23 .

2
α2 + β 2 = 27 − 2 32 = 49 37


4 −3= 4

1.7 Polynomial Remainder & Factor Theorem

Remainder and Factor Theorems

ˆ Remainder Theorem: If p(x) is divided by (x − a), the remainder is p(a).
ˆ Factor Theorem: (x − a) is a factor of p(x) if and only if p(a) = 0.
10 CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRA & QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Example 6
Find the remainder when p(x) = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 is divided by (x − 2).
p(2) = 8 − 16 + 2 + 6 = 0. Remainder is 0, so (x − 2) is a factor.

Example 7
Find k so that (x + 1) is a factor of x3 + kx2 − x − 6.
p(−1) = −1 + k + 1 − 6 = 0 ⇒ k = 6.

1.8 Common MCQ Tricks

NED MCQ Tip: If a question gives α + β and αβ directly, never solve for α, β individually — use
the sum/product identities.
NED MCQ Tip: For ”nature of roots” questions, compute D mentally first; don’t fully solve the
quadratic.
NED MCQ Tip: For factor-theorem MCQs, test small integer values (±1, ±2, ±3) of x first — NED
papers favor clean integer roots.
Shortcut: To quickly check if D is a perfect square (rational roots), look at b2 − 4ac before reaching
for the formula — many options can be eliminated instantly.
Common Mistake
Sign errors in −b/a are the single most common mistake with root relations. Always write the
equation in standard form ax2 + bx + c = 0 before reading off a, b, c.

1.9 Chapter Summary

ˆ Master the 8 core identities — they underlie nearly every factorization problem.
ˆ Completing the square derives the quadratic formula; know both methods.
ˆ Discriminant sign tells you root nature instantly, without solving.
ˆ Sum/product of roots let you answer root-combination questions without ever finding α, β.
ˆ Remainder Theorem: remainder = p(a). Factor Theorem: p(a) = 0 ⇔ (x − a) is a factor.
Chapter 2

Matrices

2.1 Matrix Types

ˆ Row matrix: single row, e.g. 1 2 3 .
 

ˆ Column matrix: single column.

ˆ Square matrix: rows = columns.
ˆ Diagonal matrix: square, all off-diagonal entries 0.
ˆ Identity matrix I: diagonal matrix with all diagonal entries 1.
ˆ Zero (null) matrix: all entries 0.
ˆ Symmetric matrix: A = AT . Skew-symmetric: AT = −A.
ˆ Upper/lower triangular: zeros below/above the main diagonal.

2.2 Matrix Operations

Addition/Subtraction & Scalar Multiplication

Add/subtract matrices of the same size entrywise. For scalar k, multiply every entry of A by k:
(kA)ij = k aij .

2.3 Matrix Multiplication & Shortcuts

Matrix Am×n can be multiplied by Bn×p only when the inner dimensions match; the result is m × p.
Entry (i, j) of AB is the dot product of row i of A with column j of B.

Memory Trick
Multiplication is NOT commutative: AB ̸= BA in general. For 2 × 2 matrices, multiply
row-by-column fast by writing B’s columns beside A’s rows mentally — this avoids re-writing
intermediate steps.

Example 1
   
1 2 0 1
A= ,B= . Find AB.
3 4 1 0
   
1(0) + 2(1) 1(1) + 2(0) 2 1
AB = =
3(0) + 4(1) 3(1) + 4(0) 4 3

11
12 CHAPTER 2. MATRICES

2.4 Determinants

Ö
2 2 Determinant

a b
= ad − bc
c d

Ö
3 3 Determinant (cofactor expansion along row 1)

a1 b1 c1
b c a c a b
a2 b2 c2 = a1 2 2 − b1 2 2 + c1 2 2
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c3

Example 2

1 2 3
Evaluate 0 1 4 .
5 6 0

= 1(1 · 0 − 4 · 6) − 2(0 · 0 − 4 · 5) + 3(0 · 6 − 1 · 5) = 1(−24) − 2(−20) + 3(−5) = −24 + 40 − 15 = 1

Memory Trick
Sarrus’ Rule (3Ö3 only): copy the first two columns to the right of the matrix; sum the three
top-left-to-bottom-right diagonal products, subtract the three top-right-to-bottom-left diagonal
products. Faster than cofactor expansion under time pressure.

2.5 Inverse of a Matrix

Ö
2 2 Inverse
 
a b
For A = , if det A = ad − bc ̸= 0:
c d
 
−1 1 d −b
A =
det A −c a

Example 3
 
2 3
Find the inverse of A = .
1 2
 
−1 2 −3
det A = 4 − 3 = 1, so A = .
−1 2

2.6 Adjoint Method (for 3 3) Ö

Adjoint Formula
1
A−1 = adj(A), adj(A) = (cofactor matrix)T
det A
2.7. SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH MATRICES 13

Steps: (1) find the matrix of cofactors Cij = (−1)i+j Mij where Mij is the minor; (2) transpose to
get adj(A); (3) divide by det A.

Common Mistake
Forgetting to transpose the cofactor matrix is the most common error — the cofactor matrix itself
is not the adjoint.

2.7 Solving Linear Equations with Matrices

ˆ Matrix inverse method: write AX = B ⇒ X = A−1 B.
ˆ Cramer’s Rule: for a1 x + b1 y = c1 , a2 x + b2 y = c2 :

Cramer’s Rule (2 variables)

c1 b1 a1 c1
c2 b2 a2 c2
x= , y=
a1 b1 a1 b1
a2 b2 a2 b2

Example 4
Solve 2x + y = 5, x − y = 1 using Cramer’s Rule.
2 1 5 1 2 5
D= = −3, Dx = = −6, Dy = = −3.
1 −1 1 −1 1 1
x = Dx /D = 2, y = Dy /D = 1.

2.8 Important Properties

ˆ det(AB) = det(A) det(B)
ˆ det(AT ) = det(A)
ˆ (AT )T = A, (A + B)T = AT + B T , (AB)T = B T AT
ˆ AA−1 = A−1 A = I
ˆ A matrix is invertible (non-singular ) iff det A ̸= 0
ˆ det(kA) = k n det A for an n × n matrix
NED MCQ Tip: If asked whether a system has a unique solution, check det A ̸= 0 rather than
solving the whole system.
Shortcut: For a 2 × 2 inverse, swap the diagonal entries, negate the off-diagonal entries, then divide
by the determinant — no need to compute cofactors.

2.9 Chapter Summary

ˆ Know all matrix types and the conditions A = AT (symmetric) vs AT = −A (skew-symmetric).
ˆ Multiplication requires matching inner dimensions and is not commutative.
ˆ 2 × 2 determinant: ad − bc. Use Sarrus’ rule for quick 3 × 3 determinants.
ˆ Inverse exists only when det A ̸= 0; adjoint method needs cofactors, then transpose.
ˆ Cramer’s Rule and X = A−1 B are the two standard ways to solve linear systems with matrices.
14 CHAPTER 2. MATRICES
Chapter 3

Sequence & Series

3.1 Arithmetic Progression (AP)

AP Formulas
nth term: an = a + (n − 1)d
n  n
Sum of n terms: Sn = 2a + (n − 1)d = (a + an )
2 2
where a = first term, d = common difference = an+1 − an .

Example 1
Find the 20th term and sum of the first 20 terms of 3, 7, 11, 15, . . .
a = 3, d = 4. a20 = 3 + 19(4) = 79. S20 = 20 2 (3 + 79) = 820.

Memory Trick
If three numbers are in AP, write them as a − d, a, a + d — the middle term is the arithmetic
mean of the other two. This trick collapses most ”three numbers in AP” word problems into one
variable.

3.2 Geometric Progression (GP)

GP Formulas
nth term: an = a rn−1
a(rn − 1) a(1 − rn )
Sum of n terms (r ̸= 1): Sn = =
r−1 1−r
where r = common ratio = an+1 /an .

Example 2
Find the sum of the first 6 terms of 2, 6, 18, 54, . . .
2(36 − 1) 2(728)
a = 2, r = 3. S6 = = = 728.
3−1 2

Memory Trick
For p
three numbers in GP, write them as a/r, a, ar — the middle term is the geometric mean:
a = (a/r)(ar).

15
16 CHAPTER 3. SEQUENCE & SERIES

3.3 Infinite Geometric Series

Sum to Infinity
If |r| < 1:
a
S∞ =
1−r
If |r| ≥ 1, the series diverges (no finite sum).

Example 3
Find S∞ for 8, 4, 2, 1, . . .
8
a = 8, r = 12 . S∞ = 1 = 16.
1− 2

Common Mistake
Applying the infinite-sum formula when |r| ≥ 1 is a very common MCQ trap — always check
|r| < 1 first.

3.4 Harmonic Progression (HP)

A sequence is an HP if the reciprocals of its terms form an AP. To solve HP problems: take reciprocals,
solve as an AP, then take reciprocals of the answer.
Means Relation
a+b √ 2ab
For two numbers a, b: AM =
, GM = ab, HM =
2 a+b
Key relation: GM2 = AM × HM, and AM ≥ GM ≥ HM.

3.5 Sigma Notation & Standard Sums

Standard Summation Formulas

n n n  2
X n(n + 1) X
2 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) X
3 n(n + 1)
k= , k = , k =
2 6 2
k=1 k=1 k=1

Example 4
10
X
Find k2 .
k=1
10(11)(21)
= = 385.
6

3.6 Pattern Recognition Tricks

NED MCQ Tip: If consecutive differences are constant, it’s an AP; if consecutive ratios are constant,
it’s a GP. Check both quickly by inspection before choosing a formula.
Shortcut: For ”sum of first n odd numbers” = n2 , and ”sum of first n even numbers” = n(n + 1) —
memorize these as instant lookups.
3.7. PRACTICE EXAMPLES 17

Shortcut: For AP/GP word problems (”three numbers whose sum is... and product is...”), always
use the symmetric forms a − d, a, a + d or a/r, a, ar to reduce to one variable.

3.7 Practice Examples

Example 5
The 4th term of an AP is 15 and the 9th term is 35. Find the first term and common difference.
a + 3d = 15, a + 8d = 35 ⇒ 5d = 20 ⇒ d = 4, a = 3.

Example 6
Three numbers in GP have sum 26 and product 216. Find them.
Let numbers be a/r, a, ar. Product: a3 = 216 ⇒ a = 6. Sum: 6/r + 6 + 6r = 26 ⇒ 6r2 − 20r + 6 =
0 ⇒ 3r2 − 10r + 3 = 0 ⇒ r = 3 or r = 13 .
Numbers: 2, 6, 18.

3.8 Chapter Summary

ˆ AP: constant difference d; GP: constant ratio r; HP: reciprocals form an AP.
ˆ Know an and Sn formulas for both AP and GP cold — these are guaranteed MCQ material.
ˆ Infinite GP sum only exists when |r| < 1.
ˆ AM ≥ GM ≥ HM, and GM2 = AM × HM.
ˆ Use symmetric variable forms (a − d, a, a + d etc.) to simplify multi-number problems.
18 CHAPTER 3. SEQUENCE & SERIES
Chapter 4

Permutations, Combinations & Proba-

bility

4.1 Factorials

Factorial Basics

n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 2 · 1, 0! = 1

8!
Shortcut: Simplify factorial fractions by cancelling instead of expanding: = 8 × 7 = 56.
6!

4.2 Permutations

Permutations count ordered arrangements.

Permutation Formulas

n n!
Pr =
(n − r)!
Arrangements of n distinct objects: n!. Arrangements with repetition (p of one kind, q of
n!
another, . . . ):
p! q! · · ·

Example 1
In how many ways can 4 books be chosen and arranged from 7 different books?
7 P = 7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 840.
4
3!

Example 2
Find the number of distinct arrangements of the letters of ”STATISTICS”.
10 letters total: S(3), T(3), A(1), I(2), C(1).

10!
= 50400
3! 3! 2!

19
20 CHAPTER 4. PERMUTATIONS, COMBINATIONS & PROBABILITY

4.3 Circular Permutations

Circular Arrangements
Arrangements of n distinct objects in a circle: (n − 1)!
(n − 1)!
If clockwise and anticlockwise arrangements are considered identical (e.g. necklaces):
2

Example 3
In how many ways can 6 people be seated around a round table?
(6 − 1)! = 120.

Common Mistake
Using n! instead of (n − 1)! for circular arrangements is a very frequent mistake — one seat’s
rotation must be fixed as reference.

4.4 Combinations
Combinations count unordered selections.
Combination Formula
     
n n n! n n
Cr = = , =
r r!(n − r)! r n−r

Example 4
A committee of 3 is to be chosen from 5 men and 4 women, with exactly 2 men. How many ways?
5 C × 4 C = 10 × 4 = 40.
2 1

Shortcut: ”At least one” problems: compute total selections minus the selections with none of the
required type — usually faster than summing multiple cases.

4.5 Binomial Coefficients

Binomial Theorem
n  
n
X n
(x + y) = xn−r y r
r
r=0
n
xn−r y r


General term: Tr+1 = r

Example 5
Find the coefficient 3 5

of x in (x + 2) .
5 5−r r
General term: r x 2 . Need 5 − r = 3 ⇒ r = 2.
 
5 2
2 = 10 × 4 = 40
2
4.6. PROBABILITY BASICS 21

4.6 Probability Basics

Basic Probability
number of favorable outcomes
P (E) = , 0 ≤ P (E) ≤ 1
total number of outcomes
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B), P (A′ ) = 1 − P (A)

4.7 Conditional Probability & Independent Events

Conditional Probability
P (A ∩ B)
P (A | B) = , P (B) ̸= 0
P (B)
Events A, B are independent iff P (A ∩ B) = P (A) P (B)

Example 6
A card is drawn from a standard deck. Given that it is a face card, find the probability it is a
king.
4 1
Face cards = 12, kings = 4. P (king | face) = = .
12 3

4.8 Bayes’ Theorem (Basic)

Bayes’ Theorem
P (B | A) P (A)
P (A | B) =
P (B)
where P (B) = P (B | A)P (A) + P (B | A′ )P (A′ ) when only two cases partition the sample space.

Example 7
Box A has 3 red, 2 blue balls; Box B has 1 red, 3 blue. A box is chosen at random and a ball
drawn. Given the ball is red, find the probability it came from Box A.
P (A) = P (B) = 12 . P (R | A) = 35 , P (R | B) = 41 .
1 3 1 1 3 1 12 5 17
P (R) = 2 · 5 + 2 · 4 = 10 + 8 = 40 + 40 = 40

1 3 3
2 · 5 10 12
P (A | R) = 17 = 17 =
40 40
17

4.9 Expected MCQs

NED MCQ Tip: Use P (r) vs C(r) correctly: if order matters (arrangement, ranking, code), use
permutations; if it doesn’t (committee, group), use combinations.
NED MCQ Tip: ”At least” and ”at most” almost always signal the complement trick: P (at least one) =
1 − P (none).
NED MCQ Tip: Watch for ”with repetition allowed” vs ”without repetition” — this changes nr vs
nP .
r
22 CHAPTER 4. PERMUTATIONS, COMBINATIONS & PROBABILITY

4.10 Chapter Summary

nP
n r
ˆ Permutations = ordered, Combinations = unordered.


r = .
r!
(n − 1)!
ˆ Circular permutations: (n − 1)!, or if reflections are identical.
2
ˆ Binomial general term: Tr+1 = nr xn−r y r .

ˆ Independent events multiply: P (A ∩ B) = P (A)P (B).

ˆ Bayes’ theorem reverses conditional probabilities using the law of total probability.
Chapter 5

Trigonometry

5.1 Trigonometric Ratios

For a right triangle with angle θ: opposite O, adjacent A, hypotenuse H.
Basic Ratios
O A O H H A
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = , csc θ = , sec θ = , cot θ =
H H A O A O

Urdu Hint
Yaad rakhne ka tareeqa: ”Sadhu Oam Har Kal (SOH-CAH-TOA)” — Sin = Opposite/Hy-
potenuse, Cos = Adjacent/Hypotenuse, Tan = Opposite/Adjacent.

5.2 Standard Angles

0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦

√ √
1 2 3
sin 0 √2 √2 2 1
3 2 1
cos 1 2 2 √2 0
1
tan 0 √
3
1 3 undefined

Memory Trick
p p p p p
Finger trick / pattern trick: write sin values as 0/4, 1/4, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4 for
0◦ , 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , 90◦ — simplify each root to instantly regenerate the whole table. cos is the
same table reversed.

5.3 ASTC Rule (Sign of Ratios by Quadrant)

ASTC Rule
Quadrant I: All positive. Quadrant II: Sin (and csc) positive.
Quadrant III: Tan (and cot) positive. Quadrant IV: Cos (and sec) positive.

Urdu Hint
Yaad rakhne ka jumla: ”Add Sugar To Coffee” — A, S, T, C, quadrant 1 se 4 tak.

23
24 CHAPTER 5. TRIGONOMETRY

5.4 All Identities

Pythagorean Identities

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ, 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

Reciprocal & Quotient Identities

1 1 1 sin θ
csc θ = , sec θ = , cot θ = , tan θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ cos θ

5.5 Compound Angle Formulas

Sum and Difference Formulas

sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
tan A ± tan B
tan(A ± B) =
1 ∓ tan A tan B

Example 1
Find sin 75◦ using compound angle formula. √√ √ √ √
2 3 2 1 6+ 2
sin 75◦ = sin(45◦ + 30◦ ) = sin 45 cos 30 + cos 45 sin 30 = · + · =
2 2 2 2 4

5.6 Double-Angle Formulas

Double Angle

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 A
2 tan A
tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A

5.7 Half-Angle Formulas

Half Angle
r r r
A 1 − cos A A 1 + cos A A 1 − cos A
sin = ± , cos = ± , tan = ±
2 2 2 2 2 1 + cos A
5.8. PRODUCT-TO-SUM AND SUM-TO-PRODUCT 25

5.8 Product-to-Sum and Sum-to-Product

Product-to-Sum

2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)

2 cos A cos B = cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)
2 sin A sin B = cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)

Sum-to-Product
C +D C −D C +D C −D
sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos , cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos
2 2 2 2

5.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Principal Value Ranges

sin−1 x ∈ − π2 , π2 , cos−1 x ∈ [0, π], tan−1 x ∈ − π2 , π2

 

π π
sin−1 x + cos−1 x = , tan−1 x + cot−1 x =
2 2

5.10 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

y
1
θ
−2π −π π 2π
−1

sin θ cos θ — both have period 2π, amplitude 1.

π
tan θ has period π and vertical asymptotes at θ = 2 + nπ.

5.11 Solved Problems

Example 2
1 − cos 2A
Prove: = tan A.
sin 2A
1 − (1 − 2 sin2 A) 2 sin2 A sin A
LHS = = = = tan A = RHS.
2 sin A cos A 2 sin A cos A cos A

Example 3
Solve 2 sin θ − 1 = 0 for 0 ≤ θ < 360◦ .
sin θ = 12 ⇒ θ = 30◦ or 150◦ (Quadrants I and II, since sin is positive there).

Common Mistake
When solving trig equations, students often give only one solution and forget the second quadrant
partner (ASTC rule). Always check all quadrants where the ratio is positive/negative as required.
26 CHAPTER 5. TRIGONOMETRY

NED MCQ Tip: Convert everything to sin and cos first when an identity looks messy — it almost
always simplifies fastest.
Shortcut: Recognize 2 sin A cos A as sin 2A and cos2 A − sin2 A as cos 2A on sight — these disguises
are extremely common in NED MCQs.

5.12 Chapter Summary

ˆ Know the standard angle table and ASTC rule without hesitation.
ˆ Pythagorean identities connect sin, cos, tan, sec, csc, cot — pick the form that matches the question.
ˆ Compound, double, and half-angle formulas let you break any angle into known pieces.
ˆ Inverse trig functions have restricted principal-value ranges — always state them.
Chapter 6

Functions & Limits

6.1 Types of Functions

ˆ One-to-one (injective): distinct inputs give distinct outputs.
ˆ Onto (surjective): every element of codomain is hit.
ˆ Bijective: both one-to-one and onto (has a true inverse).
ˆ Even function: f (−x) = f (x) (symmetric about y-axis).
ˆ Odd function: f (−x) = −f (x) (symmetric about origin).
ˆ Polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric — know the standard shape
of each.
Memory Trick
Horizontal line test: if any horizontal line cuts the graph more than once, f is not one-to-one.

6.2 Domain and Range

Common Domain Restrictions
ˆ Denominator ̸= 0
ˆ Expression under an even root ≥ 0
ˆ Argument of log must be > 0
ˆ sin−1 x, cos−1 x require −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

Example 1
√
x−2
Find the domain of f (x) = .
x−5
Need x − 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 2, and x ̸= 5. Domain: [2, 5) ∪ (5, ∞).

6.3 Composite Functions

Composition

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
In general f ◦ g ̸= g ◦ f .

27
28 CHAPTER 6. FUNCTIONS & LIMITS

Example 2
If f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x2 , find (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (x2 ) = 2x2 + 1. (g ◦ f )(x) = g(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)2 .

6.4 Inverse Functions

Finding an Inverse
To find f −1 (x): write y = f (x), swap x and y, solve for y.

f (f −1 (x)) = f −1 (f (x)) = x

Example 3
3x − 2
Find f −1 (x) for f (x) = .
5
3x − 2 5y + 2 5x + 2
y= ⇒ 5y = 3x − 2 ⇒ x = . So f −1 (x) = .
5 3 3

6.5 Limits — One-Sided and Standard Limits

Limit Existence
lim f (x) exists iff lim f (x) = lim f (x).
x→a x→a− x→a+

Standard Limits
sin x tan x 1 − cos x
lim = 1, lim = 1, lim =0
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x
ex − 1 1 x
 
ln(1 + x)
lim = 1, lim = 1, lim 1 + =e
x→0 x x→0 x x→∞ x
xn − an
lim = nan−1
x→a x − a

Example 4
x2 − 4
Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2
(x − 2)(x + 2)
= lim = lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2 x−2 x→2

Example 5
sin 4x
Evaluate lim .
x→0 x
sin 4x
= lim 4 · = 4(1) = 4.
x→0 4x

Common Mistake
0
Plugging in the limiting value directly when it gives 0 is meaningless — always factor, rationalize,
or use standard limit forms first.
6.6. CONTINUITY 29

6.6 Continuity
Continuity at a Point
f is continuous at x = a iff all three hold:
1. f (a) is defined
2. lim f (x) exists
x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

6.7 Important Shortcuts

Shortcut: For 00 rational limits, factor and cancel the common root factor (x − a) — this resolves
almost every polynomial limit.
Shortcut: For limits at infinity of rational functions, divide numerator and denominator by the
highest power of x in the denominator.
NED MCQ Tip: If a limit question involves sin, tan, ex , or ln near 0, it is testing a standard limit
— manipulate the expression into that exact form.

6.8 Chapter Summary

ˆ Domain restrictions: no zero denominators, non-negative even roots, positive log arguments.
ˆ Composite functions apply innermost first; order matters.
ˆ Inverse functions: swap x, y and solve; only true inverses exist for bijective functions.
ˆ Standard limits (sin x/x → 1, etc.) are the backbone of most limit MCQs.
ˆ Continuity requires the function value and the limit to exist and match.
30 CHAPTER 6. FUNCTIONS & LIMITS
Chapter 7

Differentiation

7.1 Derivative from First Principles

Definition
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h

Example 1
Differentiate f (x) = x2 from first principles.

(x + h)2 − x2 2xh + h2
f ′ (x) = lim = lim = lim (2x + h) = 2x
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

7.2 Power Rule

Power Rule
d n d
x = nxn−1 , (c) = 0 for constant c
dx dx

7.3 Product and Quotient Rules

Product Rule
d
[u · v] = u′ v + uv ′
dx

Quotient Rule

d h u i u′ v − uv ′
=
dx v v2

Urdu Hint
Quotient rule yaad rakhne ka jumla: ”low-d-high minus high-d-low, over low-squared ” — yani
neeche wali function ki derivative pehle, phir upar wali.

31
32 CHAPTER 7. DIFFERENTIATION

Example 2
Differentiate y = x2 sin x.
y ′ = 2x sin x + x2 cos x (product rule).

Example 3
x
Differentiate y = .
x+1
(1)(x + 1) − (x)(1) 1
y′ = 2
= .
(x + 1) (x + 1)2

7.4 Chain Rule

Chain Rule
d
f (g(x)) = f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dx

Example 4
Differentiate y = sin(3x2 + 1).
y ′ = cos(3x2 + 1) · 6x.

7.5 Implicit Differentiation

Differentiate both sides with respect to x, treating y as a function of x (so every y term picks up a
dy dy
via chain rule), then solve for .
dx dx
Example 5
dy
Find if x2 + y 2 = 25.
dx
dy dy x
2x + 2y =0⇒ =− .
dx dx y

7.6 Logarithmic Differentiation

Used when a variable is raised to a variable power, or for products/quotients of many factors: take ln
of both sides first.
Example 6
Differentiate y = xx .
1 dy dy
ln y = x ln x ⇒ = ln x + 1 ⇒ = xx (ln x + 1).
y dx dx
7.7. STANDARD DERIVATIVES 33

7.7 Standard Derivatives

Trigonometric Derivatives
d d d
sin x = cos x, cos x = − sin x, tan x = sec2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
cot x = − csc2 x, sec x = sec x tan x, csc x = − csc x cot x
dx dx dx

Exponential & Logarithmic Derivatives

d x d x d 1 d 1
e = ex , a = ax ln a, ln x = , loga x =
dx dx dx x dx x ln a

7.8 Applications: Tangents & Normals

Tangent and Normal Lines
At point (x0 , y0 ) on the curve, slope of tangent = f ′ (x0 ) = m.
1
Tangent: y − y0 = m(x − x0 ), Normal: y − y0 = − (x − x0 )
m

Example 7
Find the tangent to y = x2 at x = 2.
y ′ = 2x ⇒ m = 4 at x = 2, y0 = 4. Tangent: y − 4 = 4(x − 2) ⇒ y = 4x − 4.

Common Mistake
Forgetting that the normal’s slope is the negative reciprocal of the tangent’s slope (not just nega-
tive) is a common error.

7.9 Other Applications

ˆ Increasing/decreasing: f ′ (x) > 0 ⇒ increasing; f ′ (x) < 0 ⇒ decreasing.
ˆ Critical points: where f ′ (x) = 0 or undefined.
ˆ Second derivative test: f ′′ (x) > 0 ⇒ local min; f ′′ (x) < 0 ⇒ local max.
dy
ˆ Rate of change: gives instantaneous rate.
dx
Shortcut: For polynomial derivatives, differentiate term-by-term instantly using the power rule —
don’t expand large brackets first if a substitution or chain rule shortcut avoids it.
1
NED MCQ Tip: If a function is a quotient with a constant numerator, e.g. , it’s faster to rewrite
x
as x−1 and use the power rule than the quotient rule.

7.10 Chapter Summary

ˆ First principles defines the derivative as a limit of a difference quotient.
ˆ Product, quotient, and chain rules cover all combinations of functions.
ˆ Implicit and logarithmic differentiation handle y-in-terms-of-x and variable-exponent cases.
34 CHAPTER 7. DIFFERENTIATION

ˆ Memorize all standard trig, exponential, and log derivatives.

ˆ Tangent slope = f ′ (x0 ); normal slope is its negative reciprocal.
Chapter 8

Integration

8.1 Basic Integration Formulas

Standard Integrals

xn+1
Z Z
n 1
x dx = + C (n ̸= −1), dx = ln |x| + C
n+1 x
ax
Z Z
x x
e dx = e + C, ax dx = +C
ln a
Z Z Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C, cos x dx = sin x + C, sec2 x dx = tan x + C
Z Z Z
2
csc x dx = − cot x + C, sec x tan x dx = sec x + C, csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C

8.2 Integration by Substitution

Choose u as an inner function whose derivative also appears (up to a constant) in the integrand.

Example 1
Z
Evaluate 2x cos(x2 ) dx.
Let u = x2 , du = 2x dx. Z
= cos u du = sin u + C = sin(x2 ) + C

8.3 Integration by Parts

Integration by Parts
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du

Choose u using LIATE: Logarithmic, Inverse trig, Algebraic, Trigonometric, Exponential (priority
order for choosing u).

35
36 CHAPTER 8. INTEGRATION

Example 2
Z
Evaluate xex dx.
Let u = x, dv = ex dx ⇒ du = dx, v = ex .
Z
= xe − ex dx = xex − ex + C
x

Urdu Hint
LIATE yaad rakhne ka tareeqa: jo function pehle differentiate karne mein ”khatam” ho jaye (jaise
ln x ya x), usay u banao; jo integrate karna aasan ho (jaise ex ), usay dv banao.

8.4 Partial Fractions (Basic)

For proper rational functions with distinct linear factors:

px + q A B
= +
(x − a)(x − b) x−a x−b

Example 3
3x + 5
Decompose .
(x − 1)(x + 2)
3x + 5 = A(x + 2) + B(x − 1). At x = 1: 8 = 3A ⇒ A = 83 . At x = −2: −1 = −3B ⇒ B = 31 .

3x + 5 8/3 1/3
= +
(x − 1)(x + 2) x−1 x+2

8.5 Trigonometric Integrals

Common Trig Integral Techniques

1 − cos 2x
ˆ sin2 x dx: use sin2 x =
R
2
1 + cos 2x
ˆ cos2 x dx: use cos2 x =
R
2
ˆ tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C
R

ˆ sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C

R

Example 4
Z
Evaluate sin2 x dx.
1 − cos 2x
Z
x sin 2x
= dx = − +C
2 2 4
8.6. DEFINITE INTEGRALS 37

8.6 Definite Integrals

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a), where F ′ (x) = f (x)
a

Example 5
Z 2
Evaluate x2 dx.
 3 2 0
x 8 8
= = −0= .
3 0 3 3

8.7 Area Interpretation

Area Under a Curve
Area between y = f (x) and the x-axis from x = a to x = b (where f (x) ≥ 0):
Z b
A= f (x) dx
a

If the curve dips below the axis, that portion contributes a negative value — take |f (x)| or split
the integral at the roots to get true area.

Common Mistake
Directly integrating over an interval where f (x) changes sign gives a signed (net) area, not the
true geometric area — always check for sign changes first.

8.8 Expected MCQs

NED MCQ Tip: Spot the derivative of the denominator in the numerator — that pattern integrates
directly to ln |denominator|.
NED MCQ Tip: For xn dx MCQs with n = −1, remember the power rule fails and the answer is
R
0
ln |x|, not x0 . Ra Ra
Shortcut: Recognize odd/even symmetry: for even f , −a f (x)dx = 2 0 f (x)dx; for odd f , the
definite integral over [−a, a] is 0 — this eliminates full computation instantly.

8.9 Chapter Summary

ˆ Master all standard integral formulas — they mirror the derivative table in reverse.
ˆ Substitution matches an inner function’s derivative; integration by parts uses LIATE to pick u.
ˆ Partial fractions break rational expressions into simpler integrable pieces.
ˆ Definite integrals evaluate via the Fundamental Theorem; watch for sign changes when finding
area.
38 CHAPTER 8. INTEGRATION
Chapter 9

Analytic Geometry

9.1 Lines

Slope and Distance Formulas

 
y2 − y1 p x1 + x2 y1 + y2
m= , d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 , Midpoint = ,
x2 − x1 2 2

Forms of a Line

Slope-intercept: y = mx + c Point-slope: y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

y − y1 y2 − y1
Two-point: = General: Ax + By + C = 0
x − x1 x2 − x1

Angle Between Two Lines

m1 − m2
tan θ =
1 + m1 m2
Parallel: m1 = m2 . Perpendicular: m1 m2 = −1.

Example 1
Find the equation of the line through (1, 2) and (3, 8).
8−2
m= = 3. y − 2 = 3(x − 1) ⇒ y = 3x − 1.
3−1

9.2 Circles

Standard and General Forms

Standard (center (h, k), radius r): (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 p
General form: x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, with center (−g, −f ) and r = g 2 + f 2 − c

Example 2
Find the center and radius of x2 + y 2 − 4x + 6y − 12 = 0.
2g = −4 ⇒ g = −2; 2f√= 6 ⇒ f = 3; c = −12.
Center = (2, −3), r = 4 + 9 + 12 = 5.

39
40 CHAPTER 9. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Tangent to a Circle
Line is tangent to circle iff the perpendicular distance from center to line equals r. Tangent at
point (x1 , y1 ) on x2 + y 2 = r2 :
xx1 + yy1 = r2

9.3 Conics
9.3.1 Parabola

Standard Parabola

y 2 = 4ax (opens right, focus (a, 0), directrix x = −a)

x2 = 4ay (opens up, focus (0, a), directrix y = −a)

9.3.2 Ellipse

Standard Ellipse

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1 (a > b), b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ), foci (±ae, 0)
a2 b

9.3.3 Hyperbola

Standard Hyperbola

x2 y 2 b
− 2 = 1, b2 = a2 (e2 − 1), foci (±ae, 0), asymptotes y = ± x
a2 b a

Parabola y 2 = 4x Ellipse Hyperbola

Example 3
Find the focus and directrix of y 2 = 12x.
4a = 12 ⇒ a = 3. Focus = (3, 0), directrix x = −3.

Example 4
x2 y 2
Find the eccentricity of the ellipse+ = 1.
25 9
a = 25, b = 9 ⇒ 9 = 25(1 − e ) ⇒ e = 25 ⇒ e = 54 .
2 2 2 2 16

Common Mistake
Mixing up a and b when the ellipse is taller than wide (i.e., b > a along x) flips all the focus/ec-
centricity formulas — always identify the major axis first.
9.4. CHAPTER SUMMARY 41

NED MCQ Tip: Identify the conic type instantly from the general equation Ax2 + By 2 + . . . = 0:
A = B gives a circle, A ̸= B same sign gives an ellipse, opposite signs give a hyperbola, and only one
squared term gives a parabola.
Shortcut: To find the center of a circle from the general form, just take (−g, −f ) — no need to
complete the square if the equation is already in general form.

9.4 Chapter Summary

ˆ Slope, distance, and midpoint formulas underlie all coordinate geometry.
ˆ Circle: center (−g, −f ), r = g 2 + f 2 − c from the general form.
p

ˆ Parabola, ellipse, hyperbola each have a standard form — memorize focus/directrix/eccentricity

relations for each.
ˆ Use the quick conic-identification trick from the general second-degree equation to save time.
42 CHAPTER 9. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Chapter 10

Vectors

10.1 Magnitude and Unit Vector

Basics
For ⃗v = xı̂ + yȷ̂ + z k̂:
p ⃗v
|⃗v | = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , v̂ =
|⃗v |

Example 1
Find the unit vector along ⃗v = 3ı̂ − 4ȷ̂.
√ 3 4
|⃗v | = 9 + 16 = 5. v̂ = ı̂ − ȷ̂.
5 5

10.2 Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Vector Addition
⃗a + ⃗b = (a1 + b1 )ı̂ + (a2 + b2 )ȷ̂ + (a3 + b3 )k̂
Addition follows the triangle/parallelogram law geometrically.

10.3 Dot Product

Dot Product

⃗a · ⃗b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = |⃗a||⃗b| cos θ

Perpendicular vectors: ⃗a · ⃗b = 0. Parallel vectors (same/opposite direction): cross product = ⃗0.

Example 2

Find ⃗a · ⃗b for ⃗a = 2ı̂ + 3ȷ̂, ⃗b = ı̂ − ȷ̂.

= 2(1) + 3(−1) = −1.

43
44 CHAPTER 10. VECTORS

10.4 Cross Product

Cross Product

ı̂ ȷ̂ k̂
⃗a × ⃗b = a1 a2 a3 , |⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a||⃗b| sin θ
b1 b2 b3

The result is a vector perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b (right-hand rule).

Example 3

Find ⃗a × ⃗b for ⃗a = (1, 0, 0), ⃗b = (0, 1, 0).

ı̂ ȷ̂ k̂
⃗a × ⃗b = 1 0 0 = k̂
0 1 0

Urdu Hint
Dot product ek scalar deta hai (sirf number), cross product ek vector deta hai. Yaad rakhein:
”Dot = number, Cross = arrow (direction ke sath).”

10.5 Angle Between Two Vectors

Angle Formula

⃗a · ⃗b
cos θ =
|⃗a||⃗b|

Example 4

Find the angle between ⃗a = (1, 0) and ⃗b = (1, 1).

√ 1
⃗a · ⃗b = 1, |⃗a| = 1, |⃗b| = 2. cos θ = √ ⇒ θ = 45◦ .
2

10.6 Projection

Scalar and Vector Projection

⃗a · ⃗b
Scalar projection of ⃗a on ⃗b:
|⃗b|
⃗a · ⃗b
Vector projection of ⃗a on ⃗b: ⃗b
|⃗b|2

10.7 Applications
1
ˆ Area of a triangle with sides ⃗a, ⃗b: |⃗a × ⃗b|
2
ˆ Area of a parallelogram: |⃗a × ⃗b|
10.8. CHAPTER SUMMARY 45

ˆ Work done: W = F⃗ · d⃗
ˆ Torque: ⃗τ = ⃗r × F⃗
Example 5
Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(0, 0), B(2, 0), C(1, 3).
⃗ = (2, 0, 0), AC
AB ⃗ = (1, 3, 0). AB
⃗ × AC⃗ = (0, 0, 6). Area = 1 (6) = 3.
2

Common Mistake
A very common slip: using the dot product formula when a question actually asks for area (which
needs the cross product’s magnitude), or vice versa.

NED MCQ Tip: ”Perpendicular” ⇒ dot product = 0. ”Parallel” ⇒ cross product = ⃗0 (or compo-
nents proportional). Keep these two triggers separate.
⃗ × AC
Shortcut: To quickly test if three points are collinear, check if AB ⃗ = ⃗0 — no need to compute
slopes.

10.8 Chapter Summary

ˆ Magnitude uses the 3D distance formula; unit vector normalizes by dividing by magnitude.
ˆ Dot product gives a scalar and relates to cos θ; cross product gives a vector and relates to sin θ.
ˆ Perpendicular ⇔ dot product zero; parallel ⇔ cross product zero.
ˆ Cross product magnitude gives parallelogram/triangle area directly.
46 CHAPTER 10. VECTORS
Chapter 11

Complex Numbers

11.1 The Imaginary Unit

Definition and Powers of i
√
i = −1, i2 = −1, i3 = −i, i4 = 1
Powers of i cycle every 4: to simplify in , use in mod 4 .

Example 1
Simplify i27 .
27 = 4(6) + 3 ⇒ i27 = i3 = −i.

11.2 Complex Numbers and the Argand Diagram

A complex number z = x + iy is plotted as the point (x, y) in the Argand plane — x-axis is the real
axis, y-axis is the imaginary axis.

4
Im

2 z = 3 + 2i

Re
2 4

11.3 Modulus and Argument

Modulus and Argument
p y
|z| = x2 + y 2 , arg(z) = θ = tan−1 (adjust for quadrant)
x

Example 2
√
Find |z|
√ and arg(z) for z = 1√+ i 3.
|z| = 1 + 3 = 2. θ = tan−1 ( 3) = 60◦ (Quadrant I).

47
48 CHAPTER 11. COMPLEX NUMBERS

11.4 Conjugates
Conjugate Rules
For z = x + iy, conjugate z̄ = x − iy.

z · z̄ = x2 + y 2 = |z|2 , z + z̄ = 2x, z − z̄ = 2iy

Memory Trick
To divide complex numbers, multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denom-
inator — this always clears i from the denominator.

Example 3
3 + 2i
Simplify .
1−i
1 + i (3 + 2i)(1 + i) 3 + 3i + 2i + 2i2 1 + 5i
Multiply by : = = .
1 + i (1 − i)(1 + i) 1+1 2

11.5 Polar Form

Polar Form

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), r = |z|, θ = arg(z)

Example 4
√
Write z = 1 + i 3 in polar form.
r = 2, θ = 60◦ . z = 2(cos 60◦ + i sin 60◦ ).

11.6 De Moivre’s Theorem

De Moivre’s Theorem

[r(cos θ + i sin θ)]n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ)

Example 5
Evaluate (1√+ i)8 .
1 + i: r = 2, θ = 45◦ .
√
(1 + i)8 = ( 2)8 (cos 360◦ + i sin 360◦ ) = 16(1 + 0) = 16

11.7 Roots of Complex Numbers

nth Roots
The n distinct nth roots of r(cos θ + i sin θ) are:

θ + 360◦ k θ + 360◦ k
    
1/n
zk = r cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1
n n
11.8. CHAPTER SUMMARY 49

Example 6
Find the cube roots of unity (z 3 = 1).
1 = cos 0◦ + i sin 0◦ , r = 1.

360◦ k 360◦ k
   
zk = cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2
3 3
√ √
3 3
Roots: 1, − 12 + i 2 , − 12 − i 2 .

Common Mistake
Forgetting to add 360◦ k before dividing by n gives only ONE root instead of all n distinct roots
— this is the single most common error on this topic.

NED MCQ Tip: If a question gives a complex number in the form a + bi and asks for a high power,
convert to polar form first — expanding directly is far slower and error-prone.
Shortcut: Cube roots of unity satisfy 1 + ω + ω 2 = 0 and ω 3 = 1 — memorize this to instantly
simplify expressions involving ω.

11.8 Chapter Summary

ˆ i2 = −1; powers of i cycle with period 4.
ˆ Modulus |z| = x2 + y 2 ; argument found via tan−1 (y/x) with quadrant correction.
p

ˆ Multiply by the conjugate to divide complex numbers cleanly.

ˆ De Moivre’s theorem: raise modulus to the power, multiply the argument by the power.
ˆ nth roots require adding 360◦ k to the argument before dividing by n, for k = 0, . . . , n − 1.
50 CHAPTER 11. COMPLEX NUMBERS
Complete Formula Sheet

This chapter condenses every formula from the book onto a few dense pages for rapid scanning the
night before, or minutes before, the exam.

1. Algebra & Quadratics

(a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2ab + b2 a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)

(a ± b)3 = a3 ± 3a2 b + 3ab2 ± b3 a3 ± b3 = (a ± b)(a2 ∓ ab + b2 )
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= D = b2 − 4ac
2a
b c
α+β =− αβ =
a a
Remainder of p(x) ÷ (x − a) = p(a) Factor iff p(a) = 0

2. Matrices

 
a b −1 1 d −b
= ad − bc A =
c d det A −c a
1
A−1 = adj(A) det(AB) = det A det B
det A
Dx Dy
(AB)T = B T AT x= , y= (Cramer)
D D

3. Sequences & Series

an = a + (n − 1)d (AP) Sn = n2 [2a + (n − 1)d]

a(rn − 1)
an = arn−1 (GP) Sn =
r−1
a √
a+b 2ab
S∞ = , |r| < 1 AM,GM,HM = 2 , ab, a+b
1−r
k = n(n+1) k 2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)
X X
2 6

51
52 Complete Formula Sheet

4. Permutations, Combinations & Probability

n n! n n!
Pr = Cr =
(n − r)! r!(n − r)!
 
n n−r r
Circular = (n − 1)! Binomial term Tr+1 = x y
r
P (A ∩ B)
P (A ∪ B) = P (A) + P (B) − P (A ∩ B) P (A | B) =
P (B)
P (B | A)P (A)
Independent: P (A ∩ B) = P (A)P (B) P (A | B) = (Bayes)
P (B)

5. Trigonometry

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ

sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1
tan A ± tan B
q
tan(A ± B) = sin A2 = ± 1−cos2
A
1 ∓ tan A tan B

6. Functions & Limits

sin x ex − 1
lim =1 lim =1
x→0 x x→0 x
ln(1 + x)
x
lim =1 lim 1 + x1 = e
x→0 x x→∞
n
x −a n
lim = nan−1
x→a x − a

7. Differentiation

d n d
x = nxn−1 (uv) = u′ v + uv ′
dx dx
d  u  u′ v − uv ′ d
= f (g(x)) = f ′ (g(x))g ′ (x)
dx v v2 dx
d d
sin x = cos x cos x = − sin x
dx dx
d d x
tan x = sec2 x e = ex
dx dx
d 1 1
ln x = Normal slope = −
dx x m
Complete Formula Sheet 53

8. Integration

xn+1
Z Z
1
xn dx = +C dx = ln |x| + C
n+1 x
Z Z
ex dx = ex + C sin x dx = − cos x + C
Z Z
cos x dx = sin x + C sec2 x dx = tan x + C
Z Z Z b
u dv = uv − v du f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a)
a

9. Analytic Geometry

y2 − y1 p
m= d= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
x2 − x1
p
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 center = (−g, −f ), r = g 2 + f 2 − c
x2 y 2
y 2 = 4ax (parabola) + 2 = 1 (ellipse)
a2 b
x2 y 2
− 2 = 1 (hyperbola) b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) (ellipse)
a2 b

10. Vectors

p
|⃗v | = x2 + y 2 + z 2 ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a||⃗b| cos θ
|⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a||⃗b| sin θ Area of △ = 21 |⃗a × ⃗b|
Perp ⇔ ⃗a · ⃗b = 0 Parallel ⇔ ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0

11. Complex Numbers

p
i2 = −1 |z| = x2 + y 2
z z̄ = |z|2 z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) (De Moivre) zk = r1/n cos θ+360k θ+360k
 
n + i sin n
54 Complete Formula Sheet
Last-Minute Revision Notes & Most Ex-
pected MCQs

Highest-Yield Topics for NED Entry Test

Based on typical weighting, prioritize in this order if time is short:
1. Quadratic equations (roots, discriminant, sum/product) — almost always several MCQs.
2. Trigonometric identities and standard angles.
3. Differentiation rules and standard derivatives.
4. Integration formulas and basic substitution.
5. Matrices (determinant, inverse, Cramer’s rule).
6. Complex numbers (modulus, argument, De Moivre).

One-Line Reminders per Chapter

ˆ Algebra: D > 0, = 0, < 0 tells you root nature — check this first, always.
ˆ Matrices: no inverse if det A = 0; adjoint = transpose of cofactor matrix.
ˆ Sequences: constant difference → AP; constant ratio → GP; infinite GP sum needs |r| < 1.
ˆ P&C/Probability: order matters → permutation; order doesn’t → combination; ”at least” →
use complement.
ˆ Trigonometry: convert to sin / cos when stuck; ASTC gives sign by quadrant.
ˆ Functions & Limits: sin x/x → 1 as x → 0 is the most-used standard limit.
ˆ Differentiation: chain rule for compositions, product/quotient rule for products/fractions.
ˆ Integration: reverse of differentiation table; watch n = −1 special case (→ ln |x|).
ˆ Analytic Geometry: circle center (−g, −f ); identify conic by comparing x2 , y 2 coefficients.
ˆ Vectors: dot → scalar/angle; cross → vector/area.
ˆ Complex Numbers: always add 360◦ k before dividing by n for roots.

Most Expected MCQ-Style Questions

1. If α, β are roots of x2 − 5x + 6 = 0, find α2 + β 2 . (Answer: 25 − 12 = 13)
sin 5x
2. Evaluate lim . (Answer: 5/3)
x→0 3x
 
2 3
3. Find det . (Answer: 5)
1 4

55
56 Last-Minute Revision

4. Simplify i15 . (Answer: −i)

d
x3 ln x . (Answer: 3x2 ln x + x2 )


5. Find
dx
Z 1
6. Evaluate x dx. (Answer: 1/2)
0
7. How many ways can 5 people be arranged around a circular table? (Answer: 24)
8. Find the sum to infinity of 1, 31 , 91 , . . . (Answer: 3/2)
x2 y 2 √
9. Find the eccentricity of + = 1. (Answer: 7/4)
16 9
10. Find the angle between ⃗a = (1, 1, 0) and ⃗b = (1, 0, 1). (Answer: 60◦ )

Common Mistakes Recap

ˆ Using −b/a with wrong sign of b after not rewriting the equation in standard form.
ˆ Forgetting the second quadrant/solution when solving trig equations.
ˆ Confusing normal slope (negative reciprocal) with tangent slope.
ˆ Applying S∞ formula when |r| ≥ 1.
ˆ Skipping +360◦ k in complex nth root problems.
ˆ Not transposing the cofactor matrix when finding the adjoint.
Final Reminder
Exam se pehle sirf formula boxes aur ”Common Mistakes” sections dobara parhein — poora
chapter dobara parhne ki zaroorat nahi. Confidence rakhein, aap ready hain.
1-Hour-Before-Exam Revision Guide

Use this page only in the final hour. Do not open the full book — just scan these boxes in order.
0–10 min: Algebra & Matrices
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= , α + β = −b/a, αβ = c/a, D = b2 − 4ac
  2a  
a b −1 1 d −b
det = ad − bc, A =
c d det A −c a

10–20 min: Sequences & P/C/Probability

a
AP: an = a + (n − 1)d, Sn = n2 (2a + (n − 1)d). GP: an = arn−1 , S∞ = (|r| < 1)
1−r
nP n! nC n! P (A ∩ B)
r = , r = , P (A | B) =
(n − r)! r!(n − r)! P (B)

20–30 min: Trigonometry

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1; ASTC rule by quadrant; sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A; cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A
sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B; standard angle table for 0, 30, 45, 60, 90◦

30–40 min: Limits / Differentiation / Integration

d d x
limx→0 sin x/x = 1. Power/product/quotient/chain rules. dx sin x = cos x, dx e = ex
n+1
x dx = xn+1 + C, x1 dx = ln |x| + C, ex dx = ex + C
R n R R

40–50 min: Analytic Geometry & Vectors

p
Circle center (−g, −f ), r = g 2 + f 2 − c. y 2 = 4ax parabola; ellipse/hyperbola standard
forms.
⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a||⃗b| cos θ (perp ⇒ 0); |⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a||⃗b| sin θ (area)

50–60 min: Complex Numbers + Final Scan

p
i2 = −1; |z| = x2 + y 2 ; z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ); roots need +360◦ k before dividing by n.
Re-scan every ”Common Mistake” box across chapters one last time.

Exam-Room Mindset
Attempt the questions you’re 100% sure of first. Mark uncertain ones and return if time permits.
Use the discriminant/ASTC/complement shortcuts to eliminate wrong options fast on MCQs —
you rarely need the full solution to reject 2 of 4 choices.

57
58 1-Hour Revision Guide

Best of Luck
Aap ne mehnat ki hai — ab bas apne aap par yaqeen rakhein, sawalat ko dhyan se parhein, aur
time manage karein. Good luck for your NED Entry Test!