ANGLE MODULATION – FREQUENCY

MODULATION

1
 FREQUENCY MODULATION

In FM, the message signal m(t) controls the frequency fc of the carrier. Consider the
carrier

vc (t)= Vc cos(ωct )
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert ti
ag ain .

then for FM we may write:

FM signal v s (t)=V c cos(2π( f c + frequency deviation)t ) ,where the frequency deviation

The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

will depend on m(t).

Given that the carrier frequency will change, we may write for an instantaneous
carrier signal
Vc cos(ωit )=V c cos(2πfit )=V c cos(φi )
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

where i is the instantaneous angle = ωit = 2πf i t and fi is the instantaneous

The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your

computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears you may have to delete the image an d then insert it a g a i n .

frequency.

2
 FREQUENCY MODULATION

dφi 1 dφi
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

φ = 2 πf t = 2πf i or fi =
T he i m age c annot b e di s pl ay ed. Y our c om put er m ay n o t hav e e n o u g h m em or y t o open t he i m age, o r t he i m age m ay hav e been c or r upt ed. Restart
y our computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, y ou may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

Since i i then
dt 2π dt
i.e. frequency is proportional to the rate of change of angle.

If fc is the unmodulated carrier and fm is the modulating frequency, then we may

deduce that
1 dφi
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

f i = f c + Δfc cos(ωmt )=
2π dt

fc is the peak deviation of the carrier.

1 dφi
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

= f c + Δf ccos(ωmt ) ,i.e. dφi = 2πf c + 2πΔf ccos(ωmt )

The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

Hence, we have
2π dt dt

3
 FREQUENCY MODULATION

 (ω + 2πΔfc cos(ωmt ))dt

The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

After integration i.e. c

2πΔf c sin(ωm t )
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

φi = ω c t +
ωm
Δf c
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

φi = ωct + sin(ωm t )
fm

vs (t)= Vc cos(φi )
T he i m age c annot be di s pl ay ed. Y our com puter may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

Hence for the FM signal,

The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

 Δf c 
v s (t)=V c co s ωc t + sin(ωm t )
 fm 

4
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
Δf c
T he i m age c annot be di s pl ay ed. Y our c om put er m ay not have

The ratio is called the Modulation Index denoted by  i.e.

fm
Peak frequency deviation
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

β=
modulating frequency

Note – FM, as implicit in the above equation for vs(t), is a non-linear

process – i.e. the principle of superposition does not apply. The FM
signal for a message m(t) as a band of signals is very complex. Hence,
m(t) is usually considered as a 'single tone modulating signal' of the
form

m(t )=V m cos(ωmt )

The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

5
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

 Δf c 
v
The equation s (t )=V c co s ωc t+ sin (ωm t ) may be expressed as Bessel
 fm 
series (Bessel functions)
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.


vs (t)=Vc  J (β )cos(ω +nω )t n c m
n=−

where Jn() are Bessel functions of the first kind. Expanding the equation for a few
terms we have:

6
 FM SIGNAL SPECTRUM

The amplitudes drawn are completely arbitrary, since we have not found
any value for Jn() – this sketch is only to illustrate the spectrum.

7
 GENERATION OF FM SIGNALS –
FREQUENCY MODULATION
An FM modulator is:

• a voltage-to-frequency converter V/F

• a voltage-controlled oscillator VCO

In these devices (V/F or VCO), the output frequency is dependent on the

input voltage amplitude.

8
 V/F CHARACTERISTICS
Apply VIN , e.g. 0 Volts, +1 Volts, +2 Volts, -1 Volts, -2 Volts, ... and measure the
frequency output for each VIN . The ideal V/F characteristic is a straight line as
shown below.

fc, the frequency output when the input is zero is called the undeviated or nominal
carrier frequency.
T he i m age c annot be di s pl ay ed. Y our c om put er m ay not have

Δf
enough me mory to open the imag e, or the image may have been

c or r upt ed. Restart y our c om put er , and t hen open t he file agai n. If
the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then
insert it again.

The gradient of the characteristic is the Frequency Conversion Factor,

denoted by  per Volt. ΔV

9
 V/F CHARACTERISTICS
Consider now, an analogue message input, m (t )=V m cos (ωmt )
T he i m age c annot be displaye d. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it a gain.

As the input m(t) varies from

+ Vm → 0 → −Vm
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert ti

. n i a g a

the output frequency will vary from a

maximum, through fc, to a minimum
frequency.

10
 V/F CHARACTERISTICS
For a straight line, y = c + mx, where c = value of y when x = 0, m = gradient, hence
we may say
f OUT = f c +αV IN
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then
insert it a g a i n .

and when VIN = m(t) fOUT = f c +αm(t ) ,i.e. the deviation depends on m(t).
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image a nd t hen insert
it again.

Considering that maximum and minimum input amplitudes are +Vm and -Vm
respectively, then The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

f max = f c +αV m
on the diagram on the previous slide.
f min = f c − αVm
The peak-to-peak deviation is fmax – fmin, but more importantly for FM the peak
deviation fc is
Δf c αVm
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x stil
appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it a g a i n .

The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file

Δfc = αVm
again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

Peak Deviation, Hence, Modulation Index, β = =

fm fm

11
 SUMMARY OF THE IMPORTANT
POINTS OF FM
• In FM, the message signal m(t) is assumed to be a single tone frequency,

m(t )=Vm cos(ωmt )

T he i m age c annot be di s pl ay ed. Y our c om put er m ay not ha ve enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

• The FM signal vs(t) from which the spectrum may be obtained as

The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.


vs (t)=Vc  J (β )cos(ω +nω )t n c m
n=−
Δ fc
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the file again. If the red x

αVm
still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

where Jn() are Bessel coefficients and Modulation Index, β = =

fm fm
•  Hz per Volt is the V/F modulator, gradient or Frequency Conversion Factor,
 per Volt
•  is a measure of the change in output frequency for a change in input amplitude.
The image cannot be displayed. Your computer may not have enough memory to open the image, or the image may have been corrupted. Restart your computer, and then open the
file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

• Peak Deviation (of the carrier frequency from fc) Δfc = αVm
12
 FM SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
The diagrams below illustrate FM signal waveforms for various inputs

At this stage, an input digital data

sequence, d(t), is introduced –
the output in this case will be FSK,
(Frequency Shift Keying).

13
 FM SIGNAL WAVEFORMS

Assuming d (t) = +V for 1's fOUT = f1 = fc + V for 1's  the output ‘switches’

= −V for 0's f OUT = f 0 = f c − V for 0's  between f1 and f0.

14
 FM SIGNAL WAVEFORMS

The output frequency varies ‘gradually’ from fc to (fc + Vm), through fc to

(fc - Vm) etc.

15
 FM SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
If we plot fOUT as a function of VIN:

In general, m(t) will be a ‘band of signals’, i.e. it will contain amplitude and
frequency variations. Both amplitude and frequency change in m(t) at the input
are translated to (just) frequency changes in the FM output signal, i.e. the
amplitude of the output FM signal is constant.
Amplitude changes at the input are translated to deviation from the carrier at
the output. The larger the amplitude, the greater the deviation.

16
 FM SIGNAL WAVEFORMS
Frequency changes at the input are translated to rate of change of frequency at the
output. An attempt to illustrate this is shown below:

17
FM SPECTRUM – BESSEL COEFFICIENTS

The FM signal spectrum may be determined from


vs (t) = Vc J n ( ) cos(c + nm )t
n=−

The values for the Bessel coefficients, Jn() may be found

from graphs or, preferably, tables of ‘Bessel functions of
the first kind’.

18
FM SPECTRUM – BESSEL COEFFICIENTS

Jn()

 = 2.4 =5

In the series for vs(t), n = 0 is the carrier component, i.e. Vc J 0 ( ) cos(ct),

hence the n = 0 curve shows how the component at the carrier frequency, fc,
varies in amplitude, with modulation index .

19
 EXAMPLES FROM THE GRAPH
 = 0: When  = 0 the carrier is unmodulated and J0(0) = 1,
all other Jn(0) = 0, i.e.

 = 2.4: From the graph (approximately)

J0(2.4) = 0, J1(2.4) = 0.5, J2(2.4) = 0.45 and J3(2.4) = 0.2

20
 SIGNIFICANT SIDEBANDS – SPECTRUM
As may be seen from the table of Bessel functions, for values of n above a
certain value, the values of Jn() become progressively smaller. In FM the
sidebands are considered to be significant if Jn()  0.01 (1%).
Although the bandwidth of an FM signal is infinite, components with amplitudes
VcJn(), for which Jn() < 0.01 are deemed to be insignificant and may be ignored.

Example: A message signal with a frequency fm Hz modulates a carrier fc to

produce FM with a modulation index  = 1. Sketch the spectrum.

n Jn(1) Amplitude Frequency

0 0.7652 0.7652Vc fc
1 0.4400 0.44Vc fc+fm fc - fm
2 0.1149 0.1149Vc fc+2fm fc - 2fm
3 0.0196 0.0196Vc fc+3fm fc -3 fm
4 0.0025 Insignificant
5 0.0002 Insignificant

21
 SIGNIFICANT SIDEBANDS – SPECTRUM

As shown, the bandwidth of the spectrum containing significant

components is 6fm, for  = 1.

22
SIGNIFICANT SIDEBANDS – SPECTRUM
The table below shows the number of significant sidebands for various
modulation indices () and the associated spectral bandwidth.

 No of sidebands  1% of Bandwidth
unmodulated carrier
0.1 2 2fm
0.3 4 4fm
0.5 4 4fm
1.0 6 6fm
2.0 8 8fm
5.0 16 16fm
10.0 28 28fm

e.g. for  = 5, 16 sidebands (8 pairs).

23
 CARSON’S RULE FOR FM BANDWIDTH
An approximation for the bandwidth of an FM signal is given by:

BW = 2(Maximum frequency deviation

+ highest modulated frequency)

Bandwidth, BW = 2(fc + f m ) Carson’s Rule

24
 NARROWBAND AND WIDEBAND FM

Narrowband FM NBFM

From the graph/table of Bessel functions it may be seen that for small ,
(  0.3) there is only the carrier and 2 significant sidebands, i.e. BW = 2fm.

FM with   0.3 is referred to as narrowband FM (NBFM) (Note, the

bandwidth is the same as DSBAM).

Wideband FM WBFM

For  > 0.3 there are more than 2 significant sidebands. As  increases the
number of sidebands increases. This is referred to as wideband FM (WBFM).

25
 VHF/FM
VHF/FM (Very High Frequency band = 30MHz – 300MHz) radio transmissions,
in the band 88MHz to 108MHz have the following parameters:
Max frequency input (e.g. music) 15kHz fm

Deviation 75kHz fc = Vm

Modulation Index  5  = fc
fm

For  = 5 there are 16 sidebands and the FM signal bandwidth is

16fm = 16 x 15kHz = 240kHz.
Applying Carson’s Rule BW = 2(75+15) = 180kHz.

26
 COMMENTS FM
• The FM spectrum contains a carrier component and an infinite number of
sidebands at frequencies fc  nfm (n = 0, 1, 2, …)

FM signal, vs (t) = Vc J n ( ) cos(c + nm )t
n=−

• In FM we refer to sideband pairs not upper and lower sidebands. Carrier or other
components may not be suppressed in FM.

• The relative amplitudes of components in FM depend on the values Jn(), where

 = Vm thus, the component at the carrier frequency depends on m(t),
fm
as do all the other components and none may be suppressed.

27
 COMMENTS FM
• Components are significant if Jn()  0.01. For <<1 (  0.3 or less) only
J0() and J1() are significant, i.e. only a carrier and 2 sidebands. Bandwidth
is 2fm, similar to DSBAM in terms of bandwidth - called NBFM.

• Large modulation index  = fc means that a large bandwidth is required

fm
– called WBFM.

• The FM process is non-linear. The principle of superposition does not apply.

When m(t) is a band of signals, e.g. speech or music the analysis is very
difficult (impossible?). Calculations usually assume a single tone frequency
equal to the maximum input frequency.
E.g. m(t)  band 20Hz → 15kHz, fm = 15kHz is used.

28
 POWER IN FM SIGNALS

From the equation for FM v s (t) = Vc J n ( ) cos(c + nm )t

n=−

we see that the peak value of the components is VcJn() for the nth component.
2
 V pk  = (VRMS ) 2
Single normalised average power =   then the nth component is
 2

 Vc J n ( ) 

2
 =
(Vc J n ( ))2
 2  2

Hence, the total power in the infinite spectrum is

(Vc J n ( ))2

Total power PT = 
n=− 2

29
 POWER IN FM SIGNALS
By this method we would need to carry out an infinite number of calculations to
find PT. But, considering the waveform, the peak value is Vc, which is constant.
2
 V pk  Vc 2
Since we know that the RMS value of a sine wave is   =
 2  2

and power = (VRMS)2 then we may deduce that

Hence, if we know Vc for the FM signal, we can find the total power PT for
the infinite spectrum with a simple calculation. 30
 POWER IN FM SIGNALS
Now consider – if we generate an FM signal, it will contain an infinite number of
sidebands. However, if we wish to transfer this signal, e.g. over a radio or cable,
this implies that we require an infinite bandwidth channel. Even if there was an
infinite channel bandwidth it would not all be allocated to one user. Only a limited
bandwidth is available for any particular signal. Thus, we have to make the
signal spectrum fit into the available channel bandwidth. We can think of the
signal spectrum as a ‘train’ and the channel bandwidth as a tunnel – obviously
we make the train slightly less wide than the tunnel if we can.

31
 EXAMPLE

Consider NBFM, with  = 0.2. Let Vc = 10 volts. The total power in the infinite
V 2c a
spectrum
2
= 50 Watts, i.e.  (J n (  )) 2
= 50 Watts.
n=− a

From the table – the significant components are

n Jn(0.2) Amp = VcJn(0.2) ( Amp)2

Power =
2
0 0.9900 9.90 49.005
1 0.0995 0.995 0.4950125
PBL = 49.5 Watts

49.5
i.e. the carrier + 2 sidebands contain = 0.99 or 99% of the total power
50

32
 FM DEMODULATION –GENERAL
PRINCIPLES
• An FM demodulator or frequency discriminator is essentially a frequency-to-
voltage converter (F/V). An F/V converter may be realised in several ways,
including for example, tuned circuits and envelope detectors, phase locked
loops etc. Demodulators are also called FM discriminators.

• Before considering some specific types, the general concepts for FM

demodulation will be presented. An F/V converter produces an output voltage,
VOUT which is proportional to the frequency input, fIN.

33
 FM DEMODULATION –GENERAL
PRINCIPLES
• If the input is FM, the output is m(t), the analogue message signal. If the input
is FSK, the output is d(t), the digital data sequence.

• In this case fIN is the independent variable and VOUT is the dependent variable
(x and y axes respectively). The ideal characteristic is shown below.

We define Vo as the output when fIN = fc, the nominal input frequency.
34
 FM DEMODULATION –GENERAL
PRINCIPLES
V
The gradient is called the voltage conversion factor
f

i.e. Gradient = Voltage Conversion Factor, K volts per Hz.

Considering y = mx + c etc. then we may say VOUT = V0 + KfIN from the frequency
modulator, and since V0 = VOUT when fIN = fc then we may write

VOUT = V0 + KVIN

where V0 represents a DC offset in VOUT. This DC offset may be removed by

level shifting or AC coupling, or the F/V may be designed with the characteristic
shown next …

35
 FM DEMODULATION –GENERAL
PRINCIPLES

The important point is that VOUT = KVIN. If VIN = m(t) then the output contains
the message signal m(t), and the FM signal has been demodulated.

36
 FM DEMODULATION –GENERAL
PRINCIPLES
Often, but not always, a system designed so that K =
1
, so that K = 1 and

VOUT = m(t). A complete system is illustrated.

37
FM DEMODULATION –GENERAL
PRINCIPLES

38
 METHODS

Tuned Circuit – One method (used in the early days of FM) is to use the slope
of a tuned circuit in conjunction with an envelope detector.

39
 METHODS

• The tuned circuit is tuned so the fc, the nominal input frequency, is on the
slope, not at the centre of the tuned circuits. As the FM signal deviates about
fc on the tuned circuit slope, the amplitude of the output varies in proportion to
the deviation from fc. Thus, the FM signal is effectively converted to AM. This
is then envelope detected by the diode etc to recover the message signal.

• Note: In the early days, most radio links were AM (DSBAM). When FM came
along, with its advantages, the links could not be changed to FM quickly.
Hence, NBFM was used (with a spectral bandwidth = 2fm, i.e. the same as
DSBAM). The carrier frequency fc was chosen and the IF filters were tuned
so that fc fell on the slope of the filter response. Most FM links now are
wideband with much better demodulators.

40
 PHASE LOCKED LOOPS PLL
• A PLL is a closed loop system which may be used for FM demodulation.
A full analytical description is outside the scope of these notes. A brief
description is presented. A block diagram for a PLL is shown below.

• Note the similarity with a synchronous demodulator. The loop comprises a

multiplier, a low pass filter and VCO (V/F converter as used in a frequency
modulator).

41
 PHASE LOCKED LOOPS PLL
 The input fIN is applied to the multiplier and multiplied with the VCO frequency
output fO, to produce  = (fIN + fO) and  = (fIN – fO).

 The low pass filter passes only (fIN – fO) to give VOUT which is proportional to (fIN –
fO).

 If fIN  fO but not equal, VOUT = VIN, fIN – fO is a low frequency (beat frequency)
signal to the VCO.

 This signal, VIN, causes the VCO output frequency fO to vary and move towards
fIN.

 When fIN = fO, VIN (fIN – fO) is approximately constant (DC) and fO is held constant,
i.e locked to fIN.

 As fIN changes, due to deviation in FM, fO tracks or follows fIN. VOUT = VIN changes
to drive fO to track fIN.

 VOUT is therefore proportional to the deviation and contains the message signal
m(t).
42
 References

1. B P Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, Oxford

University Press
2. M A Matin, Communication Systems for Electrical Engineers, Springer
3. Couch, Leon W. , Digital and Analog Communication Systems, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall.

43