FLUID MECHANICS & PROCESS ENGINEERING  Pressure acts in all directions in a stationary fluid.

1. FLUID MECHANICS Units

1.1 Basic Concepts: Pressure, Hydrostatics, and Hydrodynamics  Pascal (Pa)

A. Pressure  kPa

Definition  bar

Pressure is the force acting perpendicular to a surface per unit area.  atm

Formula: 𝑃 = 𝐴
𝐹 Useful conversions:
Error! Filename not specified.  1 atm = 101325 Pa
Where:  1 bar = 100000 Pa
 𝑃: pressure (Pa) B. Hydrostatics
 𝐹: force (N) Definition
 𝐴: area (m²) Hydrostatics studies fluids at rest.
Physical Meaning Main equation: 𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Pressure describes how strongly a fluid pushes against a surface. Where:
Examples:  𝑃0 : pressure at fluid surface
 Air inside a tire pushes on the tire wall.  𝜌: fluid density
 Water pushes on the bottom of a swimming pool.  𝑔: gravity
 Steam pressure pushes turbine blades.  ℎ: depth
Important Notes Physical Interpretation
 Smaller area → larger pressure if force is unchanged. Pressure increases with depth because the lower layer must support
 Deeper fluid → larger pressure. the weight of fluid above it.
Key Concepts  turbines

1. Pressure depends on depth  mixing tanks

Greater depth → greater pressure.  chemical processing

2. Pressure depends on density 1.2 Viscosity

Denser fluids create larger pressure. Definition

Example: Mercury produces much higher pressure than water at the Viscosity is the internal resistance of a fluid to flow.
same height.
It represents friction between fluid layers.
3. Pressure does NOT depend on container shape
Examples
Only depth matters.
Low viscosity:
C. Hydrodynamics
 water
Definition
 alcohol
Hydrodynamics studies fluids in motion.
High viscosity:
Topics include:
 honey
 fluid velocity
 syrup
 pressure change
 oil
 flow rate 𝑑𝑢
Newton’s Law of Viscosity: 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦
 energy conversion
Where:
 friction losses
 𝜏: shear stress
Main Applications
 𝜇: dynamic viscosity
 pipeline design
 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑦: velocity gradient
 pumps
Meaning: Higher viscosity requires more force to move fluid layers.  larger pipes

Effect of Temperature 1.3 Flow Rate

Liquids A. Volumetric Flow Rate

Temperature increases → viscosity decreases. Formula: 𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴

Error! Filename not specified.
Reason: Higher temperature weakens intermolecular attraction.
Where:
Examples:
 𝑄: volumetric flow rate
 Heated cooking oil flows easier.
 𝑣: fluid velocity
 Hot syrup pours faster.
 𝐴: cross-sectional area
Gases
Meaning
Temperature increases → viscosity increases.
Volume of fluid passing through a section per second.
Reason: Gas molecules move faster and transfer momentum more
strongly. Units
Engineering Importance  m³/s
High viscosity causes:  L/min
 larger pressure drop B. Mass Flow Rate
 harder pumping Formula: 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣𝐴
Error! Filename not specified.
 lower mixing efficiency
Where:
 more energy consumption
 𝑚̇: mass flow rate
Therefore: Viscous fluids often require:
 𝜌: density
 positive displacement pumps
Meaning
 heating systems
Mass of fluid flowing per second.  𝐷: diameter

Importance  𝜇: viscosity

Mass flow rate is extremely important in: Physical Meaning

 chemical reactions Large Reynolds number
 heat transfer Inertial force dominates. Flow becomes chaotic.

 energy balance Small Reynolds number

Relationship Between Velocity and Area Viscous force dominates. Flow becomes smooth.

For incompressible flow: 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 Flow Regimes

Error! Filename not specified.
Laminar Flow: 𝑅𝑒 < 2300
Meaning: Error! Filename not specified.
 smaller area → higher velocity Characteristics:

 larger area → lower velocity  smooth flow

Example: A nozzle increases water velocity because area decreases.  fluid layers move orderly

1.4 Reynolds Number  low mixing

Definition  low energy loss

Reynolds number compares inertial force and viscous force. Example: Slow honey flow.
𝜌𝑣𝐷
Formula: 𝑅𝑒 = Transition Region: 2300 < 𝑅𝑒 < 4000 or 6000
𝜇
Error! Filename not specified.
Error! Filename not specified.
Flow becomes unstable. Small disturbances may create turbulence.
Where:
Turbulent Flow: 𝑅𝑒 > 6000
 𝜌: density
Error! Filename not specified.
 𝑣: velocity
Characteristics:
  chaotic motion  higher friction loss

 strong mixing 1.5 Bernoulli Equation

 eddies form 𝑃 𝑣2
Formula: 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 high energy loss Error! Filename not specified.
Example: River rapids. Where:
Factors Affecting Reynolds Number  pressure head
Increase velocity  velocity head
→ Reynolds number increases.  elevation head
Increase pipe diameter Physical Meaning
→ Reynolds number increases. Bernoulli equation expresses conservation of mechanical energy.
Increase density Energy can convert between:
→ Reynolds number increases.  pressure energy
Increase viscosity  kinetic energy
→ Reynolds number decreases.  potential energy
Engineering Significance Important Relationships
Laminar flow: Higher velocity → lower pressure
 suitable for viscous fluids This is a very important principle.
 lower pressure loss Applications:
Turbulent flow:  airplane wings
 better heat transfer  Venturi meter
 better mixing  atomizers
Relation to Hydrostatics  pumping becomes harder

If velocity equals zero: 𝑣 = 0  pressure loss increases

Error! Filename not specified.
Example 3
𝑃
Then Bernoulli becomes: 𝜌𝑔
+ 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Flow velocity increases.
Error! Filename not specified.
Effects:
This is hydrostatic equilibrium.
 turbulence increases
1.6 Engineering Trend Analysis
 friction increases
In engineering, many questions ask:
 mixing improves
 if one variable changes, what happens to others?
2. PUMPS AND FLUID TRANSPORT EQUIPMENT
You must understand relationships physically.
2.1 Centrifugal Pump
Examples:
Working Principle
Example 1
A centrifugal pump converts rotational energy into fluid energy.
Pipe diameter decreases.
Main components:
Effects:
 impeller
 velocity increases
 casing
 Reynolds number increases
 suction pipe
 pressure drop increases
 discharge pipe
Example 2
Operation Process
Viscosity increases.
Impeller rotates.
Effects:
Fluid enters center of impeller.
 Reynolds number decreases
Fluid is thrown outward by centrifugal force.
Fluid velocity increases. Examples unsuitable:

Velocity converts into pressure energy.  honey

Relation to Bernoulli Equation  heavy oil

Pump adds energy into the fluid.  paste

Therefore: Multistage Pump

 pressure increases When very high pressure or elevation is needed:

 velocity may increase  use multiple impellers in series.

 fluid can move upward Each stage adds pressure.

Advantages Applications:

1. Continuous flow  high-rise buildings

Flow is smooth and stable.  boiler feed water

2. Simple structure 2.2 Positive Displacement Pumps

Easy maintenance. Principle

3. Large flow rate Fluid is trapped in a chamber and mechanically pushed.

Suitable for water transport. Examples:

Disadvantages  piston pump

1. Low pressure capability  gear pump

Cannot generate extremely high pressure.  screw pump

2. Poor for viscous fluids Advantages

High viscosity reduces efficiency. High pressure

Reason: Viscous fluids create high friction losses. Can produce very large pressure.
Accurate flow rate Can handle solids

Good for dosing chemicals. Useful for slurry.

Works with viscous fluids Chemical resistance

Suitable for thick liquids. Suitable for corrosive fluids.

Disadvantages Applications:

Pulsating flow  wastewater

Flow is not smooth.  chemical plants

More moving parts  pharmaceutical industry

Maintenance is more difficult. 2.4 Pump Performance Curve

Multiple Cylinders Definition

Using several cylinders: Performance curve is obtained experimentally.

 reduces pulsation It shows relationship between:

 improves smoothness  flow rate

 increases capacity  head

2.3 Diaphragm Pump  efficiency

Principle  power

A flexible membrane moves back and forth. General Trend

This changes chamber volume and pumps fluid. As flow rate increases:

Advantages  head decreases

No direct rubbing parts There is an optimum efficiency point called:

Good for dirty fluids.  Best Efficiency Point (BEP)

2.5 System Curve Definition

Definition Cavitation occurs when local pressure falls below vapor pressure.

System curve represents pressure losses in piping. Liquid vaporizes and forms bubbles.

Depends on: These bubbles later collapse violently.

 pipe length Effects

 diameter  noise

 fittings  vibration

 valves  erosion

 elevation  impeller damage

Important Trend  reduced efficiency

Higher flow rate → larger friction loss. Typical sound:

Thus: System curve rises upward.  hammering noise

2.6 Operating Point Causes

Pump operates at the intersection between: Excessive suction

 pump curve Pressure becomes too low.

 system curve High temperature

At this point: Vapor pressure increases.

 pump output matches system requirement. Improper pump selection

If no intersection exists: Pump too large for system.

 system cannot operate correctly. Prevention

2.7 Cavitation  reduce suction height

  use proper pump size Flow direction:

 reduce temperature  parallel to shaft

 increase inlet pressure Usually generated by:

2.8 Compressors and Blowers  propeller impellers

Compressor Characteristics:

A compressor increases gas pressure significantly.  good circulation

Compression ratio: 𝐶𝑅 =
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡  low shear
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Error! Filename not specified.  suitable for blending liquids

Higher ratio: Radial Flow

 more compression Flow direction:

 more energy required  perpendicular to shaft

Blower Usually generated by:

Blower increases gas flow and slightly increases pressure.  turbine or paddle impellers

Principle similar to centrifugal pump. Characteristics:

Applications:  high shear

 aeration  strong turbulence

 ventilation  suitable for gas dispersion

 drying 3.2 Baffles

3. MIXING PROCESS Definition

3.1 Axial and Radial Flow Baffles are vertical plates attached inside mixing tanks.

Axial Flow Functions

Prevent vortex formation Problems Caused by Vortex

Improve turbulence  air entrainment

Increase mixing efficiency  poor mixing

Reduce swirling motion  unstable operation

Without Baffles 3.4 Mixing Efficiency

Fluid rotates together with impeller. Depends on:

Results:  impeller type

 poor mixing  tank geometry

 vortex formation  fluid viscosity

 energy waste  impeller diameter

3.3 Vortex Formation  rotation speed

Definition Important Geometric Ratio

Vortex is a funnel-like depression on fluid surface. Impeller diameter/tank diameter ratio strongly affects circulation.

Usually forms when: 𝑅𝑒 > 300 Too small: weak mixing

Factors Affecting Vortex Too large: excessive power consumption

Low viscosity 3.5 Suspensions

More likely to form vortex. Definition

High rotation speed Suspension = solid particles dispersed in liquid.

Stronger vortex. Examples:

No baffles  muddy water

Vortex becomes severe.  paint

  slurry Increasing Capacity

Suspension Viscosity Larger settling area

Viscosity increases with: Improves separation.

 particle concentration Multi-layer settlers

 particle interaction Increase throughput.

Higher solids: Longer tank

 harder mixing Provides more settling time.

 more power needed 4.3 Centrifugal Settling

4. SEDIMENTATION AND SETTLING Principle

4.1 Purpose Uses centrifugal force instead of gravity.

Sedimentation separates solid particles from fluid using gravity. Much faster than gravity settling.

Applications: Cyclone Separator

 water treatment Fluid rotates rapidly.

 mineral processing Heavy particles move outward and downward.

 food industry Clean gas exits center.

4.2 Gravity Settling Small vs Large Cyclones

Principle Small cyclone:

Particles settle downward due to gravity.  stronger centrifugal force

Important Condition  better separation efficiency

Retention time must exceed settling time. Large cyclone:

Meaning: Particles must settle before fluid exits tank.  larger capacity
  lower efficiency  settling tanks

Therefore: Industrial systems often use many small cyclones in  clarifiers

parallel.
 cyclone separators
4.4 Stokes’ Law
5. FILTRATION
𝑑 2 (𝜌𝑝 −𝜌𝑓 )𝑔
Formula: 𝑣 = 18𝜇 5.1 Cake Filtration
Error! Filename not specified.
Principle
Where:
Fluid passes through porous medium.
 𝑣: settling velocity Solid particles are trapped and form cake.
 𝑑: particle diameter Important Condition
 𝜌𝑝 : particle density Filter pore size must be smaller than particle size.
 𝜌𝑓 : fluid density Otherwise: Particles pass through filter.
 𝜇: viscosity 5.2 Filtration Resistance
Physical Interpretation Cake Growth
Larger particles As cake thickness increases:
Settle faster.  resistance increases
Larger density difference  flow rate decreases
Settle faster. Thus: Filtration becomes slower over time.
Higher viscosity Need for Cake Removal
Settle slower. Continuous operation requires periodic cake removal.
Engineering Application Otherwise:
Used to design:  pressure becomes too high
  filtration becomes inefficient  particle size

5.3 Filter Aids  chemical compatibility

Purpose  pressure

Filter aids improve permeability. 5.5 Effect of Viscosity

Examples: High viscosity fluids:

 diatomaceous earth  move slowly

 perlite  create large resistance

Compressible Cake  require higher pressure

Pressure compresses cake. Thus filtration becomes difficult.

Effects: 5.6 Constant Pressure vs Constant Rate Filtration

 porosity decreases Constant Pressure

 resistance increases strongly Pressure fixed.

Incompressible Cake As cake grows: flow rate decreases.

Cake structure changes little with pressure. Constant Rate

5.4 Filter Media Flow rate fixed.

Common materials: As cake grows: pressure must increase.

 sand Comparison

 gravel Constant pressure: simpler operation

 fiber Constant rate:

 cloth  stable production rate

Selection depends on:  more energy required later

5.7 Filtration Calculations Definition

Engineers determine: Gas velocity at which particles are carried out of bed.

 filtration time Too high velocity causes:

 filtrate volume  particle loss

 optimal pressure  reduced efficiency

Using: 6.4 Bed Voidage

 theory Definition

 experiments Voidage = fraction of empty space between particles.

6. FLUIDIZED BED Fluidization increases:

6.1 Principle  bed expansion

Gas flows upward through solid particles.  voidage

When gas velocity becomes high enough: particles behave like fluid. 6.5 Particle Size Effect

This state is called fluidization. Large particles require:

6.2 Minimum Fluidization Velocity  stronger gas flow

Definition Small particles:

Minimum velocity needed to suspend particles.  fluidize more easily

Below this velocity: However: Very fine particles may agglomerate.

 fixed bed remains. 6.6 Advantages of Fluidized Beds

Above this velocity:  excellent heat transfer

 fluidized bed forms.  uniform temperature

6.3 Entrainment Velocity  good mixing

  high reaction rate Particles broken by sudden force.

6.7 Applications Example: Hammer mill.

1. Grain drying Compression

2. Fluidized bed combustion Particles crushed between surfaces.

3. Surface cleaning Example: Roll crusher.

4. Adsorption processes Cutting

5. Food processing Sharp blades cut material.

Examples: Suitable for:

 popcorn  fibrous materials

 coffee roasting  soft materials

7. SIZE REDUCTION AND SCREENING 7.3 Hammer Mill

7.1 Purpose Principle

Main objectives: Rapidly rotating hammers impact particles.

 reduce particle size Advantages

 increase surface area  simple

Benefits:  high capacity

 faster reaction  effective for brittle materials

 easier mixing Limitations

 easier dissolution Not suitable for:

7.2 Crushing Mechanisms  sticky materials

Impact  elastic materials

Reason: Material sticks to machine. Mesh number = number of openings per inch.

7.4 Material Properties Larger mesh number: smaller opening size

Hardness Example: 200 mesh has much smaller holes than 50 mesh.

Harder material: 7.7 Average Particle Size

 requires more energy Taylor sieve analysis calculates average particle diameter using
weighted distribution.
 causes equipment wear
7.8 Mixing of Granular Materials
Brittleness
Objective
Brittle materials:
Achieve uniform composition.
 easier to fracture
Segregation
Moisture
Particles separate unintentionally.
High moisture causes:
Causes:
 agglomeration
 different particle size
 clogging
 density difference
 lower efficiency
 moisture
7.5 Screening
 electrostatic force
Principle
Problems Caused by Segregation
Particles separated according to size.
 nonuniform product
Sieve Arrangement
 inconsistent quality
Largest opening placed at top.
 poor process control
Smallest opening placed at bottom.

7.6 Mesh Concept