❑Set: The collection of well-defined distinct objects is known as a

set. The word ‘distinct’ means that the objects of a set must be all
different.

➢For Example:
The collection of children in class VII whose weight exceeds 35 kg
represents a set.

❑Elements of Set:
The different objects that form a set are called the elements of a set. The
elements of the set are written in any order and are not repeated. Elements
are denoted by small letters.
❑Notation of a Set:
A set is usually denoted by capital letters and elements are denoted by small
letters.

✓If x is an element of set A, then we say x ϵ A. [x belongs to A]

✓If x is not an element of set A, then we say x ∉ A. [x does not belong to A]

➢For example:
The collection of vowels in the English alphabet.

✓Solution :
Let us denote the set by V, then the elements of the set are a, e, i, o, u or we
can say, V = {a, e, i, o, u}
We say a ∈ V, e ∈ V, i ∈ V, o ∈ V and u ∈ V.
Also, we can say b ∉ V, c ∉ V, d ∉ V, etc.
• Representation of Sets:
For representation of a set the following three methods are commonly
used:
(i) Statement form method
(ii) Roster or tabular form method
(iii) Rule or set builder form method

➢Example:
The set of integers lying between -2 and 3.
✓Solution:
i) Statement form: {I is a set of integers lying between -2 and 3}
ii) Roster form: I = {-1, 0, 1, 2}
iii) Set builder form: I = {x : x ∈ I, -2 < x < 3}
❑Types of set:
1) Finite sets :
• Finite Sets are defined as sets with a finite number of elements. Elements of finite sets
can be counted.
• For example, A = {a, e, i, o, u} is a finite set as the number of elements of the set are
finite or the elements can be counted.

2) Infinite sets:
• Infinite sets are defined as sets that are not finite.
• The number of elements in an infinite set goes to infinity, that is, we cannot determine
the exact number of elements.
• For example, N={1,2,3,4,5,.....}
3) Countably infinite set:
• A set is countably infinite if its elements can be put in one-to-one correspondence
with the set of natural numbers.
• For example, I={0,1,-1,2,-2,3,-3,....}

4) Uncountably Infinite:
A set is uncountable if it contains so many elements that they cannot be put in one-
to-one correspondence with the set of natural numbers.
For Example, Real Numbers.
❑Set of Numbers:
1) Natural numbers:
N= {1, 2, 3, …….}

2) Whole numbers:
W= {0, 1, 2, 3, …….}

3) Integers:
Z= {………, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …….}

4) Rational numbers:
Q={p/q | p,q are integers and q≠0}

5) Real numbers:
R={.....,-0.1,........,0, 0.001,.....}
❑ Symbols used in set:
1) Subset and Superset:
• If A and B are sets and every element of A is also an element of B, then A is
subset of B. This is written as A ⊆ B.
• Equivalently, B is superset of A, if B has same elements as A or more. This is
written as B ⊇ A.
Example: A={1,2,3,4,5} and B={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

2) Proper Subset and Proper Superset:

• If A is subset of B, but A is not equal to B (that is there exist at least one
element of B which is not an element of A), then A is proper subset of B; this
is written as A ⊂ B.
• Equivalently, B is proper superset of A, if B is not equal to A, and all
elements of A are in B contains at least one element that is not in A. This is
written as B ⊃ A.
• Example: A={1,2,3} and B={1,2,3,4}
3) No Subset or no Superset:
• If there exist at least one element in set A, such that it is not present in set B,
then we set that set A is not a subset of set B. This is written as A ⊄ B.
• Equivalently, we can say that B is not superset of A. This is written as B ⊅ A.
• Example: A={1,2,3} and B={1,2}

4) Singleton Sets:
• A set that has only one element is called a singleton set or also called a unit
set. Example, Set A = { k | k is an integer between 3 and 5} which is A = {4}.

5) Disjoint Sets:
• Two sets are disjoint sets if there are no common elements in both sets.
Example: A = {1,2,3,4} B = {5,6,7,8}. Here, set A and set B are disjoint sets.
6) Unequal set (≠):
If set A and B have at least one element such that it is present in one set, but
not in other, they are called unequal sets. It is represented as A ≠ B.
Example: A={1,2,3} and B={1,2}

7) For all (∀):

It is used to represent all elements in a set. Where we write ∀a ∈A, it is read
as for all a’s that belongs to A. Here a represents all the elements in A.

8) For some or there exists (∃):

It is used to represent some elements in set. Where we write ∃x ∈A, it is read
as there exists an element x that belongs to A. Here x represents at least one
element in A.
❑ Venn Diagram:
• A Venn diagram is a diagram that helps us visualize the logical relationship
between sets and their elements and helps us solve examples based on these sets.
• A Venn diagram is also called a set diagram or a logic diagram showing different set
operations such as the intersection of sets, union of sets and difference of sets.
• A Venn diagram can be represented by any closed figure, whether it be a Circle or a
Polygon (square, hexagon, etc.). But usually, we use circles to represent each set.

• For example, a set of natural numbers is a subset of whole numbers, which is a subset
of integers. The relation between the sets of natural numbers, whole numbers and
integers can be shown by the Venn diagram, where the set of integers is the universal
set. See the figure below.
• Venn Diagram of 2 sets: Example:

• In the above figure, we can see a Venn diagram, represented by a rectangular shape about
the universal set, which has two independent sets, X and Y. Therefore, X and Y are
disjoint sets. The two sets, X and Y, are represented in a circular shape. This diagram
shows that set X and set Y have no relation between each other, but they are a part of a
universal set.
• For example, set X = {Set of even numbers} and set Y = {Set of odd numbers} and
Universal set, U = {set of natural numbers}
• We can use the below formula to solve the problems based on two sets:
n(X ⋃ Y) = n(X) + n(Y) – n(X ⋂ Y)
• Venn Diagram of 3 sets: Example:

The formula used to solve the problems on Venn diagrams with three sets is given below:
n(A ⋃ B ⋃ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ⋂ B) – n(B ⋂ C) – n(A ⋂ C) + n(A ⋂ B ⋂ C)
❑How to draw a Venn diagram?
• To draw a Venn diagram, first, the universal set should be known. Now, every set is the
subset of the universal set (U). This means that every other set will be inside the rectangle
which represents the universal set.
• So, any set A (shaded region) will be represented as follows:

• Where U is a universal set.

• We can say from figure that : A ∪ U = U
• All the elements of set A are inside the circle. Also, they are part of the big rectangle
which makes them the elements of set U.
❑Set Operations:
1) Union of sets:
• A union B is given by: A ∪ B = {x | x ∈A or x ∈B}.
• This represents the combined elements of set A and B.
2) Intersection of set:
• A intersection B is given by: A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
• This represents the common elements between set A and B.
3) Complement of set:
A’ is the complement of set A. This set contains all the elements which are not there in
set A.

It is clear that from the above figure,

A + A’ = U
It means that the set formed with elements of set A and set A’ combined is equal to U.
(A’)’= A
The complement of a complement set is a set itself.
i) Complement of Union of Set:
(A ∪ B)’: This is read as complement of A union B. This represents elements which are
neither in set A nor in set B.

ii) Complement of Intersection of Set:

(A ∩ B)’: This is read as complement of A intersection B. This represents elements of
the universal set which are not common between set A and B.
4) Difference/ Relative complement:
A-B or A\B: This is read as A difference B. Sometimes, it is also referred to as ‘relative
complement’. This represents elements of set A which are not there in set B.

5) Symmetric difference/ Boolean sum:

A ⊝ B or A⊕B or AΔB: This is read as a symmetric difference of set A and B. This is a set
which contains the elements which are either in set A or in set B, but not in both.
❑Laws of set theory:
1. Commutative Laws:
For any two finite sets A and B;
(i) A U B = B U A
(ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

2. Associative Laws:
For any three finite sets A, B and C;
(i) (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)
(ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
Thus, union and intersection are associative.
3. Idempotent Laws:
For any finite set A;
(i) A U A = A
(ii) A ∩ A = A

4. Distributive Laws:
For any three finite sets A, B and C;
(i) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)
(ii) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)
Thus, union and intersection are distributive over intersection and union
respectively.
5. De Morgan’s Laws:
For any two finite sets A and B;
(i) A – (B U C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)
(ii) A - (B ∩ C) = (A – B) U (A – C)
De Morgan’s Laws can also we written as:
(i) (A U B)’ = A' ∩ B'
(ii) (A ∩ B)’ = A' U B’

6. Absorption Law:
(i) A U (A ∩ B) = A
(ii) A ∩ (A U B) =A
(iii) A-A’=A

➢If C is subset of A, then:

(i) A ∩ C = C
(ii) A U C =A
7. Operations generating null (Φ) set:
i) A U Φ= Φ
ii) A ∩ A’= Φ
iii) A-A= Φ
iv) A ⊕ A= Φ
v) A-U= Φ
vi) Φ-A= Φ
vii) A x Φ= Φ

8. Operations generating universal (U) set:

i) A U U =U
ii) A U A’=U
iii) A ⊕ A’=U
9. Operations with null (Φ) set:
i) A U Φ =A
ii) A ∩ Φ= Φ
iii) A- Φ=A
iv) Φ-A= Φ
v) A ⊕ Φ=A
vi) Φ’=U

10. Operations with universal (U) set:

i) A U U=U
ii) A ∩ U=A
iii) A - U= Φ
iv) U-A=A’
v) A ⊕ U=A’
vi) U’= Φ
❑More laws of algebra of sets:
a) For any two finite sets A and B;
(i) A – B = A ∩ B'
(ii) B – A = B ∩ A'
(iii) A – B = A ⇔ A ∩ B = ∅
(iv) (A – B) U B = A U B
(v) (A – B) ∩ B = ∅
(vi) A ⊆ B ⇔ B' ⊆ A'
(vii) (A – B) U (B – A) = (A U B) – (A ∩ B)

b) For any three finite sets A, B and C;

(i) A – (B ∩ C) = (A – B) U (A – C)
(ii) A – (B U C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)
(iii) A ∩ (B - C) = (A ∩ B) - (A ∩ C)
(iv) A ∩ (B △ C) = (A ∩ B) △ (A ∩ C)