BIODIVERSITY UNIT

BIODIVERSITY
Topic 1: Intro to Biodiversity; Why is Biodiversity Important?

● What does “Biodiversity” mean?

● Why is biodiversity important?

● What happens when biodiversity decreases?

Biodiversity Unit Overview
Topic 1: Intro to Biodiversity; Why is Biodiversity Important?
Topic 2: Classifying and Naming Species; 3 Domain System; Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
Topic 3: Phylogeny and Cladistics
Topic 4: Dichotomous Keys
Topic 5: Viruses
Topic 6: Bacteria – Kingdom Bacteria and Kingdom Archaea
Topic 7: Kingdom Protista
Topic 8: Kingdom Fungi
Topic 9: Kingdom Plantae
Topic 10: Kingdom Animalia
Topic 11: Threats to Biodiversity and Solutions to
Importance of Biodiversity
What is Biodiversity?

Biodiversity refers to all of the different species of living organisms and where
they live on Planet Earth.

Biodiversity encompasses 3 types of diversity:

1. Genetic diversity. This refers to differences within the SAME species,

and is present in all sexually reproducing organisms (unless they have low
population numbers or they’re isolated)

2. Species diversity. This refers to the number of different species

3. Ecosystem diversity. This refers to the different types of ecosystems.

Ecosystems: where organisms
live, connect and interact

Species: all animals, plants,

fungi, and micro-organisms, not
just the ones we see or even
know about

Genes: the genetic make-up

(DNA) of each living being
Species Diversity

Out of all the species we have here on Earth…. Which ones

are most common?
Why is Biodiversity Important?

Watch this video (7:51) to

learn about the importance
of Biodiversity.
How does this relate to you/your family/your
community/your country?
1. Recreational
2. Scientific
3. Economic
4. Cultural
5. Ecological
Why is Biodiversity Important/What Valuable
Significance does Biodiversity Provide?
Recreational: Many activities which are outdoors are valuable because of the surroundings

Scientific: Many medicinal products are found in living organisms; there is a lot of research going on
in this area

Economic: Many jobs are resource-based ex. logging, fishing, farming, many recreational activities

Cultural: Many countries have important cultural ties to living components in the environment

Ecological: Access to clean water, air, etc. is only possible if we take care of, and maintain,
biodiversity
The Anthropocene….
Why care about Biodiversity?
 1.2:
Classifying and Naming
Species
ACTIVITY
In your groups, create a system to organize what you were given
(your choice…… buttons, or logos)

More complex the better, as organized as possible

→ How did you organize? What was your system? What criteria did
you choose?

→ What made it difficult? Anything that just didn’t fit? Did adding more
buttons throw you off? Do you want to change your system after
hearing other ideas?

What’s connections can we make to our class….

→ What’s the link?
- Millions of species on planet Earth
- Constant new discoveries
- Misfits that may not work in our current system
- New technology, or ideas may change our understanding
Taxonomy
● Taxonomy is the science of classifying and sorting organisms into groups
which share common characteristics

● These groups are called taxons

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.E.) was one of the first people to
classify organisms. He put them into 2 groups: plants and animals. Today, we
would call these 2 groups “Kingdoms” (ex. the Animal Kingdom)

He classified plants according to their structure and size, and whether the plant
was a herb, shrub, or tree
He classified
animals based
on the presence
or absence of
“red blood”, the
animal’s
environment,
and the shape
and size of the
animal
Carolus Linnaeus

● In the 1700s, Linnaeus, a Swedish

physician and botanist, refined the
classification system
● Linnaeus made 2 key contributions
which are still in use today:

1. He introduced a hierarchy,
subdividing taxons into smaller and
smaller groupings to show increasing
Watch this 3 minute video on Linnaeus similarity.
and his contributions.
2. He introduced a system of naming
organisms
To distinguish different degrees of similarity, Linnaeus subdivided the taxons
(groups) into smaller and smaller groups (taxons!)

● As you move down through the groupings, the number of species in each group
decreases and the similarities between species increases.

● Today, there are 8 taxons into which every living organism is placed:

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Taxons

How can you remember the order of these ○D

groupings? ○K
○P
○C
→ Use a Mnemonic Device - a memory
○O
device! (To pronounce, the “m” is silent. Just
○F
like the “p” in swimming …)
○G
○S
Make up an 8 word phrase. The beginning
letter of each word comes from each taxon
Mnemonic ideas

Do Kings Play Chess On Funny Green Spaces?

Dumb King Phillip Could Only Find Green Socks

Donkey Kong Players Came Over For Good Spaghetti

The 8 Taxonomic levels
These can be compared to our geographic location/address:

Domain (broadest) ---------------------------- Galaxy (Milky Way)

Kingdom ---------------------------------------- Planet (Earth)
Phylum ------------------------------------------ Country (Canada)
Class --------------------------------------------- Province (Ontario)
Order -------------------------------------------- City (Ottawa)
Family -------------------------------------------- Street name
Genus -------------------------------------------- Postal code
Species (most specific) ------------------------ House/Apartment number
Example of
taxons used
to classify
the Brown
Bear
How closely related two species
are is determined by how many
taxa they share in common.

Given that, answer the

following:

a. Which Ontario owls are

most closely related?
Explain.

b. Down to which taxon are

they similar?
ii. System of Naming
Linnaeus’ scientific system of naming is called “binomial nomenclature”
●The scientific name is always underlined when handwritten and italicized
when typed
The naming system is made up of 2 words:
○First word: the genus (a taxon) name; this is always capitalized. A
genus is made up of similar species.

○Second word: the species (a taxon) name; this is always lower-case. A

species is a group of organisms with similar traits who are capable of
producing fertile offspring.

Select any species and record its scientific name on your note
Examples of binomial nomenclature
Can you match these?
1. Agaricus bisporus
2. Echinacea purpurea
3. Felis domesticus
4. Canis lupus

A. B. C. D.
How do species and genus
relate to Kingdoms and
Domains?

- Similar species are

grouped into one genus
(plural, genera).

- Similar genera are

grouped into Families, then
Orders, Classes, Phyla,
Kingdoms and finally
Domains as shown for the
Brown Bear.
Evolution of the classification system
As technology has improved and expanded, our knowledge about
organisms and the system used to classify organisms has changed over
the years.

Today, organisms are placed into different taxons primarily based on

biochemistry instead of morphology.
When Names and Numbers of Kingdoms
Introduced

1700’s Plantae Animalia

Late 1800’s Protista Plantae Animalia
1950’s Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

1990’s Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

In the last few decades, scientists who examine the biochemistry of living organisms
realized that life differs in fundamental ways that were not reflected by the system at
the time.

As a result, an additional taxon called a “Domain” was required and added to the
system, above the level of Kingdom.

At the Domain level, all life on Earth is grouped into one of 3 big taxons:

The Domain Eukarya includes every organism with a nucleus i.e. all eukaryotes

The Domain Bacteria and the Domain Archaea are both bacteria groups and
are both prokaryotic. They differ based on the biochemistry of their cell walls and
RNA
Domain System
All life on Earth can be grouped into one
of 2 fundamental types of cells → Prokaryotes
Key difference: absence or presence of a
vs.
nucleus and other membrane-bound Eukaryotes
organelles

The first lifeforms to evolve on Earth were

unicellular (single-celled) bacteria which did
not have a nucleus.

→ “pro” means ‘before’

→ “eu” means ‘true’

→ “karyon” means ‘nucleus’

All cell types have 4 common components:

❖ 1. Plasma/cell membrane – an outer

covering that separates the cell’s interior
from its surrounding environment

❖ 2. Cytoplasm – a jelly-like substance in

which other cellular components are found

❖ 3. DNA – the genetic material of the cell

❖ 4. Ribosomes – organelles which

synthesize proteins
Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes Summary
 Prokaryotes
❖ Prokaryotes lack a true nucleus; the DNA is
found scattered throughout the cytoplasm,
near the central part of the cell
❖ Prokaryotes do NOT contain any
membrane-bound organelles
❖ All prokaryotes are small (0.1 to 10.0 um),
single-celled organisms which belong to the
Domains Bacteria or Archaea
❖ Prokaryotes were the first organisms to evolve
on Earth, 3.6 billion years ago. They are found
in all habitats and can obtain energy from
varied sources including sulfur, iron, sunlight,
petrochemicals
 Eukaryotes
❖ Eukaryotes have a true nucleus; the DNA is
found in the nucleus and is surrounded by the
nuclear membrane
❖ Eukaryotes DO contain many
membrane-bound organelles
❖ Eukaryotes are larger (10 to 100 times larger
than prokaryotes) and belong to the domains
Protista, Fungi, Plantae, or Animalia
❖ The presence of organelles allows for
compartmentalization and specialization of
functions
Domain Archaea

● Unicellular and prokaryotic

● Thick cell walls which lack
petidoglycan
● Cell Membranes have unusual
lipids
● Live in extreme conditions such as
hot springs, acidic lakes, etc..
● Includes organisms in Kingdom
Archaebacteria
Domain Bacteria
● Unicellular and
prokaryotic
● Thick cell walls which
contain a molecule called
petidoglycan
● found almost everywhere
except extreme
conditions
● Includes Kingdom
Eubacteria
Domain Eukarya

● All organisms with a nucleus

● Can be uni or multicellular
● Many ways to obtain nutrients
● Includes kingdoms: Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia
How did we end up here?
Class Work
1.3 Phylogeny and Cladistics
How do we determine how species are related?
● One goal of taxonomy is to determine the
evolutionary history of groups of organisms.

● This can be done by comparing species

living today with groups of species that lived
in the past.

● Scientists can use several types of

information to determine relatedness
among organisms:
Modern Classification
Problems with the original/traditional system of classification stemmed from the
focus on classifying based solely on morphology (form/appearance)

The modern criteria for classification relies upon several pieces of evidence,
including:

Comparative anatomy
Embryological similarities
Biochemical similarities (DNA, in particular)
The fossil record
Comparative Anatomy

● The study of the structure of organisms

● Using anatomical evidence from living species to determine

relationships among organisms.

● Similar bone structure may indicate a shared evolutionary

history.
Biochemical similarities

● The study of how organisms function

● Includes studying the biochemistry and proteins of

organisms.

● Since proteins are determined from genes and DNA, the

degree of genetic similarities between organisms is
determined.
Evidence from DNA
● The more genes and genetic sequences two individuals have in common,
the more closely related they are.

● Chimpanzees are our

closest relatives...we have
98% of our genes
in common with
them!
What's the link?
Since it is thought that all species evolve from a common ancestor....

Then all members of a group must have evolved through a series of events in
which ancestral species gave rise to new species, each giving rise to a new
lineage. Closely related organisms are classified together with all organisms
that share a common ancestor.
- One important piece of evidence used to classify organisms is
phylogeny, which involves the evolutionary history of a species.
- A phylogeny, or evolutionary tree, represents the evolutionary
relationships among a set of organisms or groups of organisms,
called taxa (singular: taxon).
Phylogeny
The tips of the tree represent groups of descendent taxa (often species) and
the nodes on the tree represent the common ancestors of those
descendants.

Two descendants that split from the same node are called sister groups.

In the tree below, species A & B are

sister groups — they are each
other's closest relatives.

Watch this video for an explanation

of tree diagrams, how to draw them,
and how to interpret them.
Ex: to find out whether A and B or B and C
are more closely related, follow the lines
of both pairs of species back in the tree.

Since A and B converge at a common

ancestor first as we move backwards, and
B only converges with C after its junction
point with A, we can say that A and B are
more closely related than B and C.

Note: Phylogeny is an important

consideration when developing drugs and
other medical procedures

ex: xenotransplantation between humans

and pigs.
 Another critical point about these trees is that if you rotate the structures, using
one of the branch points as a pivot, you don’t change the relationships.

Even though they are

formatted differently, all of the
trees are identical in terms of
depicting the relationships
between the species (A, B, C,
and D).

Remember that the

sequence is not important,
the branch structure that
underlies the sequence is
what is important.
Phylogeny
In a phylogenetic tree, the relatedness
of two species has a very specific
meaning.

→ Two species are more related if they

have a more recent common ancestor,
and less related if they have a less
recent common ancestor.

◦ To find the MRCA, start at the branch

ends carrying the species of interest
and “walk backwards” in the tree
until you find the point where the
species’ lines converge (come
together).
Point in time when an ancestral group split, resulting in 2 species

One species gave rise to the lineage of ray-finned fish.

The other species became ancestral to all other “new” groups to come.
Cladistics
Classification scheme based on phylogeny. In it, each group of related species has
a common ancestor. Each organism has maintained some ancestral characteristic,
but also has some new/derived characteristic which has come about through
evolution

A cladogram is a visual picture/representation of phylogenetic evolution

Note: For our purposes,

we will use phylogeny and
cladistics interchangeably.
You should understand
that they are both tree
diagrams which show the
relationships between
different organisms.
A clade is a group of organisms that consists
of a common ancestor and all of its
descendants.

- Clades can contain any number of

species, but that number must include all
of the descendants and the common
ancestor.

- Imagine clipping a branch… all

organisms on that branch would make up
a clade

- Everything in the pink circle would be a

clade.
Practice:
Answers:
F
B
Neither… both branch away at
same point
When constructing a cladogram, start with an ingroup and outgroup

Ingroup: Species or group chosen for study

Outgroup: similar but distantly related species

● Each member of the ingroup is compared to the outgroup.

● Since the outgroup is distantly related, any trait shared by ingroup members,
not found in the outgroup, is called a shared, derived trait
● The more closely related organisms are, the more genetic similarities they
have.
a) Which 2 species are most
closely related?

Human and Gorilla

b) Are pike more closely

related to lungfish or to
gorillas?

Lungfish

c) Which of the derived traits

came into existence before the
bony shell?

Lungs
How to Draw a Cladogram
1. Draw a large “V”.
2. The base represents the most recent common ancestor to all organisms.
3. Outgroup is placed at the end of the left branch.
4. Evolution of derived characteristics occurs between nodes.
5. Speciation events (which gives rise to new lineages) occur at nodes.
Practice question → Draw in notes
Construct a cladogram given
the information in the table
below.
Solution:
Cladograms – You can now officially
answer the age-old question:

“Which came first, the chicken or the egg?”

• Access the NOVA link to ‘The Evolution Lab’
here. You will start this activity in the
Biodiversity unit, and complete more in our
Evolution unit.
• To get started, click on the “DEEP TREE” icon
near the top left. Watch the 1 minute video and
play around with this area a bit to learn about
the ‘Tree of Life.’ Look for the 3 Domains on
the Tree! When you’re finished, click the ‘Home’
icon (top right).
• For Biodiversity, start “Mission 1, Training
Trees.” Watch the video for that section and
then work through the “Red, Green, and
Gecko” lab activity … there are 3 parts to each;
each section involves building phylogenetic trees.
DICHOTOMOUS KEYS
WHAT IS A DICHOTOMOUS KEY?

▪A dichotomous key is used to identify, by species name,

unknown organisms.
▪"Dichotomous" means “divided into two parts” (Greek origin)
▪A key uses a series of descriptions arranged in pairs, which leads
the user to the identification of an unknown organism.
▪The chosen description leads to either another pair of
statements or the identification of the organism. Choices
continue until the organism is identified.
2020-09-13
How to use a Dichotomous Key?
Here are creatures we donʼt know!

Letʼs choose one

How to use a Dichotomous Key:

Choose only one creature at a time.

How to use a Dichotomous Key?

Read steps 1a and 1b

Decide which statement is true

1b is true
How to use a Dichotomous Key?
Then follow the directions after that step.

5 !
step
to
Go
How to use a Dichotomous Key?
At choice 5, you make another dichotomous choice

5a is true
Go
ste to
p6
!
How to use a Dichotomous Key?
Keep going until you come to a step
that gives you the creatureʼs name.
6 a. The creature has one antennae Go to Step 7.

C
How to use a Dichotomous Key?
Choose a new creature and start at step 1a and 1b again.
Continue until you find the creatureʼs name.

Where do you start Again?

Then, find the names of all the
creatures
1. a. wings covered by an exoskeleton – go to step 2
b. wings freely observed – Go to step 3

2. a. body has a round shape ……….ladybug, a red beetle with black

spots
b. body has an elongated shape ……….grasshopper, a green insect
that hops

3. a. wings point out from the side of the body ……….dragonfly, an

insect that is 10- 15 cm long and lives in marshes
b. wings point to the posterior of the body ……….housefly, a flying
insect with red eyes and an annoying buzz
 What if I needed to make a key:
- Use constant characteristics rather than variable ones. (Flowers change with the
seasons)
- Use measurements rather than terms like "large" and "small".

- Make the choice a positive one

- something "is" instead of "is not".
- Ex: snake ears are internal only

- If possible, start both choices of a pair with the same word or item.
- the body is “round” vs the body is “square”

- Finish the dichotomous key with a full description of the organism

Dichotomous key
Another Example of a dichotomous key…
Dichotomous key
● the dichotomous key can also be expressed in a diagram form
Example:
1.5 A Microscopic Look at Life’s Organization
Viruses
What does it mean to
go viral?

What does that tell us

about viruses?

What do we already
know about viruses?
Viruses
Viruses are all
around us
Relative Size of Viruses
• How big is big? How small is small? Click this interactive to gain an appreciation for the
scale of viruses and bacteria relative to other objects.
What is a virus? And how do they fit into our
classification system?
Why aren’t they put into to our classification
system?

Viruses are non-living

About Viruses

● Viruses lack cells, cytoplasm, organelles, and cell membranes.

● They do not carry out respiration or other life processes.

● Viruses consist of a few strands of DNA and RNA, surrounded by a capsid.

Classification
• You do not find viruses included in
any of the Domains, Kingdoms,
Phyla, etc.
• Their classification has been the
subject of much controversy over the
years.
• On their own, viruses are not living,
since they are incapable of
reproducing without a host.
• However, once they infect a host,
they do show characteristics of life
and are VERY capable of
reproduction.
Structure of a Virus
All viruses, regardless of their type
and the organism they infect
(some infect bacteria; some infect
protists; some infect plants; some
infect animals) …..

have the same basic structure:

a. genetic material (DNA

or RNA)
b. a protein shell
(capsid)
The capsid protects the virus
from attack, and allows the
virus to attach to specific host
cells.
Think pizza boxes or Amazon boxes …
The box, like the capsid, is a way to deliver what’s inside, and get it “in the
door”

Viruses are essentially genes packaged within a protein coat

Different types of viruses
The Flu Virus
 Bacteriophages

• aka (phages) are a type of virus

that only infects bacteria

• Phages are the most abundant

entities on Earth

Read this article on phages.

Structure of a Bacteriophage
Bacteriophage
Once inside a cell, viruses use their DNA/RNA and “hijack” the
host cell’s machinery in order to make more copies of the virus.
2. Viral Reproduction

● One of the characteristics that viruses share with living things is their ability to
multiply.

● A virus cannot do this on its own, but rather depends on the metabolism of a
cell to replicate its DNA or RNA.
How can phages affect their bacterial hosts?
There are 2 possible outcomes that result from bacteriophage infections, depending
on how the virus reproduces. Phages have a lytic or a lysogenic reproductive cycle.

1. The Lytic Cycle

▪ Leads to immediate death of host
▪ The virus immediately hijacks the bacterial cells and they are destroyed right away

2. The Lysogenic Cycle

▪ The virus inserts its DNA into the bacterial cell’s DNA, and integrates the phage
DNA/RNA into the host’s genome (genetic material). When the host cell divides it
also makes copies of the viral DNA
▪ At some point, a trigger causes the virus to switch to the lytic cycle
1. The Lytic Cycle
Phases of the Lytic Cycle

1. Attachment
● A virus attaches to a specific receptor site on the cell membrane of the host
cell.
● Fits like a lock & key (or two pieces of a jigsaw puzzle).
2. Entry (penetration)

● Once the virus lands on the host cell, it injects its nucleic acid into the
host cell.

3. Replication (biosynthesis)

● The viral DNA and RNA become replicated.

● The host cell’s DNA begins to break down.
4. Assembly (maturation)

● New Virus Particles are assembled

5. Lysis and Release

● The host cell breaks open (lysis), and the newly formed viruses
are released.
● These new viruses will now go on to infect more cells.
Lytic Cycle: Fill in the steps below
 Steps of viral infection

Attachment & Entry

Synthesis of protein capsids

Lysis of host cells

2. Latent infections – The Lysogenic Cycle

Environmental stressors ex. low nutrient levels, UV light can cause bacteria to switch
out of the lysogenic cycle and into the lytic cycle
Lysogenic Cycle: Fill in the steps below
Lysogenic
Cycle:
Answers
Watch this video for a review of lytic vs. lysogenic infections.
What cycle is represented below?
What types of animal diseases are associated with viruses?

In humans, viruses can cause diseases such as the

- Flu
- Colds
- Measles
- Mumps
- Rubella
- Hepatitis
- Herpes
- Mononucleosis
- Rabies
- Polio
- Chickenpox

Do they all affect the body the same way?

How can viruses affect their animal hosts?
The mechanisms of entry into cells differ between
bacteria and animals. Animal cells have receptors
on their cell membranes which viruses can attach
to.

Once attached to a host cell, animal viruses may

enter in a variety of ways:

- endocytosis (where the membrane folds in);

- making channels in the host membrane
(through which DNA or RNA can be injected);
- fusing with the membrane and releasing the
capsid inside of the cell.
WHat are the potential outcomes for viral infections?
There are 4 possible outcomes from viral
infections of animal hosts:

1. Acute infections
- These have a rapid onset and fairly short
duration ex. colds, flus
- Similar in presentation to the bacteriophage
lytic cycle infection

2. Persistent or Chronic infections

- These last many years ex. hepatitis, HIV
- Antibodies to the virus will be found in the
blood
Types of Animal Cell Infections:

3. Latent infections
- These are similar to the lysogenic cycle; the virus stops reproducing and remains
dormant
- ex. herpes, shingles

4. Increased cancer risks

- Several viruses increase the risk for certain cancers
- ex. Cervical cancer risk increases due to HPV; liver cancer risk increases due to Hep
B virus
Watch this 3 minute video or this 2 minute video to see how a flu virus
enters and infects our cells
How are all of these viral diseases treated?
• Many of these can be prevented through vaccination

• Typically, viruses cause an immune response and the virus is eliminated

• Some viruses, such as HIV, are not successfully eliminated by our immune system.
Antiviral drugs can treat some infections by preventing replication of the virus

• Antibiotics can successfully treat many bacterial infections, however antibiotics

are completely ineffective at treating viral infections
Why bother with social distancing, masks and
hand washing?
4. Viruses and Biotechnology

Certain Viruses can be useful tools for genetic engineers, because they can
directly alter the viral activity of the host cell’s DNA.

● CRSPR
● Use of Bacteriophage
How can we make use of
bacteriophages?

• Since phages are the natural predators of

bacteria, they have been proposed as alternatives
to antibiotics, particularly for antibiotic resistant
strains of bacteria

• Phages can be used as biocontrol agents in

agriculture and as vehicles for vaccine delivery
and gene therapies

• Bacteriophages are a diverse group of viruses

which are easily manipulated; this makes them
ideal candidates for use in therapeutics,
research, and biotechnology. Read this article on phages.
Entry of SARS-CoV-2 Virus
Watch this video (1:32). It uses research from scientists around the
world, together with cutting edge computer simulation and graphics, to
illustrate how the virus which causes Covid 19 enters the human body.
mRNA in the News!
• Check this link for information on the new mRNA vaccines being used for COVID
 Where did
Viruses
come from?
1.6 Immunity
Viral Facts

- The Spanish flu pandemic killed over 50 million people

- Infected about ⅓ of the planets population
- Mongol armies used to catapult bodies of dead soldiers affected by plague
into city walls
- Blankets of people affected with smallpox were given as “gifts” during warfare
What does it mean to have immunity?
How can species develop immunity against a virus?

Inborn immunity = present at birth

Species immunity = entire species is immune from something

Immunity can be broken down into two different types.

1. Active
2. Passive
Active Immunity
Activate immunity can further be separated into two subcategories

Natural:

● Body becomes infected

● Produces antibodies
● Keeps antibodies

Artificial:

● Acquired through vaccinations

● Many different types…..cause body to create antibodies
● Lasts for varying amounts of time
● can be permanent or last several years
Vaccinations
There have been varying forms of
precursors to early vaccines.

Ex: Snort or rub dried cowpox scabs

from infected individuals

● First official vaccines appeared

in the 1700’s
● Led to eradication of the disease
by 1980
What are some of the mandatory vaccinations required to
attend school in Ontario?

Tetanus.
Measles.
Diphtheria.
Mumps.
Pertussis (whooping
cough) Rubella.

Polio. Meningococcal.
TedEd: Vaccines
mRNA Vaccines
Passive Immunity

Antibodies transmitted to
individual in order to
develop immunity

Ex: through mother's blood

or Milk

→ can also be artificial

Ex: antibodies from another

individual
Bacteria:
Kingdoms Archaea & Bacteria
What do we know about Bacteria?
• What do they look like?

• How do they survive?

• How do they reproduce?

• Where can bacteria be found?

• How do we classify bacteria?

• Are all species of bacteria harmful?

General structure of a bacterium:
Classification of Bacteria
• Before the ability to sequence DNA, bacteria were mainly
classified based on their morphology (shape), biochemistry, and
staining (Gram positive or Gram negative)

• Traditional classification schemes put all bacteria into one

Kingdom, Monera. This was disrupted in 1977 when Carl
Woese proposed a new system and introduced the “Domain”
concept.
Classification of Bacteria

The large diversity of prokaryotic DNA prompted Woese to

separate bacteria into two distinct Domains:

• Eubacteria includes most of the commonly encountered

bacterial forms (pathogenic bacteria and probiotic bacteria)

• Archaea consists of the “extremophiles

1.5 Kingdom Archaea
Kingdom Archaea
Key Characteristics:

1. ancient prokaryotes (no nucleus; no

membrane-bound organelles that are found in
extreme conditions of acidic, alkaline, salt
marshes, and hot sulfur springs. Therefore, they
are also called extremophiles

2. They are different from Bacteria as they have a

different cell structure and cell membrane.
• Unlike bacteria, whose cell walls contain
peptidoglycan, the cell walls of archaea do not
contain peptidoglycan.
3. Capable of extracting energy and nutrition
from many sources of energy and nourishment
including sugars, metal ions, hydrogen, and
sunlight

4. Can reproduce asexually by the following

three methods – budding, binary fission, or
fragmentation

Archaea are divided into three main subgroups,

based on the extreme habitats they are found in.
These are:
• Methanogens
• Halophiles
• Thermoacidophiles
Methanogens
• organisms that live in anaerobic conditions.

→ Where?

• Found in swamps and marshes, also found in

the gut of some herbivores (ex. cows, termites)
and humans. They are present in dead and
decaying matter too.
• Strictly anaerobic organisms that are killed when
exposed to oxygen. They reduce carbon dioxide
using H2 and release methane in swamps and
marshes that is called marsh gas.
• They are added to biogas reactors for production
of methane gas for cooking and sewage
treatment plants.
Halophiles
Organisms that survive in environments
with high salt concentration.

→ Where?

• Great Salt Lake, Dead Sea, etc..

• Many species of halophiles contain a

pink/red pigment known as carotenoids.

• They form colonies of bacteria, which

can involve as many as 100 million
bacteria per millilitre of water!
Thermoacidophiles
Organisms that live in hot and acidic
conditions.

→ Where?

- They can survive in sulfur-rich

environment, like hot springs and geysers
that have temperatures over 100°C!
- Have both aerobic and anaerobic
species, and they are often recognized
from their color, which forms due to
photosynthetic pigmentation.

→ This archaea can be seen in the

Yellowstone National Park.
ClassWork
- Where does the name
Archea come from?

- Why do you think

Archaebacteria would be of
particular interest to
researchers?
1.6 Kingdom Eubacteria
Kingdom Eubacteria
Key Characteristics:

• prokaryotes that are found everywhere

on Earth except in extreme conditions.

• Their cell walls contain peptidoglycan

• Capable of extracting energy and nutrition
from many sources

• Can reproduce asexually by the following

three methods – budding, binary fission, or
fragmentation

• Genetic recombination is also possible

through several methods
How to Classify/Group Bacteria

Bacteria can be grouped according to different

characteristics:

1. Shapes and Arrangement

2. Cell wall composition (Gram positive vs. Gram negative)
3. Oxygen requirements (aerobic vs. anaerobic)
4. Nutritional patterns/how they obtain resources (autotrophs vs.
heterotrophs)
5. Ability (or not) to produce endospores
A. Shape/Arrangement

● Cocci, or round (singular coccus)

● Bacilli, or rod-shaped (singular bacillus)
● Spirilli, or spiral-shaped (singular spirillum)

Cocci Bacilli
Spirillum
Arrangement

- diplo describes cells arranged in pairs.

- staphylo describes cells arranged in

clusters (can be very nasty)

- strepto refers to bacteria arranged in a

chain.
B. Cell Wall Composition

The Gram stain was devised by Hans Gram in 1882; it is almost always the first
test used to identify and differentiate between types of Bacteria

Bacteria are classified as Gram-positive or Gram-negative depending on their

ability to retain a dye during the Gram staining technique.

• Gram-positive bacteria have a cell wall structure with a THICK layer of

peptidoglycan that is able to retain the crystal violet dye; these appear purple.

• Gram-negative bacteria have a cell wall structure with a thin layer of

peptidoglycan that is unable to retain dye; these appear pink.
Gram positive bacteria have a thick protein Gram negative bacteria have a thin protein
layer on their cell wall and will stain purple layer on their cell wall and will stain pink.

Why do we care? → Different antibiotics work on Gram + vs. Gram - bacteria

• Majority of the Gram-negative bacteria are pathogens; Escherichia coli (E. coli)
is the most commonly known (and most studied) Gram-negative bacterium.
C. Oxygen Requirements (aerobic vs. anaerobic)

• Some bacteria, like us, require oxygen to

survive. These are called obligate aerobes.
Ex. tuberculosis bacteria

• Others, however, are killed if they are in the

presence of oxygen. These are called
obligate anaerobes. Ex. tetanus bacteria

• Still others can live with or without oxygen …

they don’t require oxygen, but they’re not
killed by its presence. These are called
facultative anaerobes. Ex. E. coli
Eschericia coli (E. coli)
D. Nutritional patterns (autotrophs vs. heterotrophs)
Some bacteria, like us, obtain their food/nutrition from others. These bacteria are
heterotrophic, and may be:

saprophytes/decomposers; these break down dead organisms

parasites; these obtain nutrients from live hosts

Other bacteria, like plants, obtain their food/nutrition by making it themselves.

These bacteria are autotrophic, and may be:

photoautotrophs; these use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into

glucose (photosynthesis!) ex. cyanobacteria
chemoautotrophs; these use inorganic chemicals for their energy
sources ex. sulfur, nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide
E. Endospore formation

Some bacteria are able to form tough

outer coatings called endospores
when environmental conditions
become harsh

The endospores allow the bacteria to

survive long periods of time by
entering a dormant phase
● While in the endospore stage,
bacteria do not grow or
reproduce, and can also
withstand harsh conditions.

● When conditions become more

favourable, the endospore loses
its coat and begins to grow and
divide like a normal cell (say if
tetani enter your bloodstream),
the bacteria begin reproduction
again.
Bacterial Reproduction
• Bacteria reproduce asexually by a
process called binary fission

• The bacterial chromosome

replicates and then the cell
divides

• Binary fission is rapid and

produces cells which are
identical (new bacteria are
essentially clones of each other)
Bacteria can also sometimes exchange genetic material
with each other.

There are 3 methods by which bacteria can change

genetically:
a. Transformation
b. Transduction
c. Conjugation

Watch this 2 minute video which describes transduction

and conjugation.
a. Transformation
- When bacterial cells are destroyed, bits of their DNA
can ‘float around’ in the environment, and
sometimes it is picked up by other bacteria

b. Transduction
- Sometimes bacteriophages (viruses) pick up host
(bacterial) DNA when they replicate. When the
phage infects other cells it brings new bacterial DNA
with it.

c. Conjugation (video)
- A temporary connection called a conjugation tube or
a pillus forms between 2 bacteria. DNA (usually a
plasmid) is transferred from one bacterium to the
other.
Are Bacteria always harmful?

Come up with at least three specific examples of bacteria

that could potentially be of some use to humans
The Importance of
Bacteria
Environmental:
- important decomposers/recyclers of
organic
- Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert
atmospheric N2 gas into a form
plants can use

Food:
- Many foods ex. cheese, pickles,
yogurt, sauerkraut, soy sauce made
using bacteria
Industrial applications:
- such as cleanups of oil & toxic spills
and ore extraction - mining
- Sewage treatment plants use bacteria
to treat wastewater
Medicinal
- uses include the production of human
insulin and growth hormones using
genetically modified bacteria (E. coli),
genetic research, antibiotics

Symbiotic:
- Bacteria in our intestines help digest
food and produce vitamins

** more bacterial cells than human cells?

Other end of the range

Come up with at least three specific examples of bacteria

that could potentially be harmful in some way
 Harmful Effects of
Bacteria

• Many bacteria are pathogens

and cause disease – in
humans, other animals, and
plants
• Bacteria cause tooth decay
and cavities
• Bacteria cause food spoilage
• Cyanobacteria can cause
blooms which harm waterways
and the organisms that live
in/near them
Disease causing
bacteria

How many illnesses do you

know of that are caused by a
certain type of bacteria?

How are bacterial infections

treated?
Antibiotics and bacterial infections
• Antibiotics are compounds
produced by microorganisms
that stop the growth of, or kill,
other microorganisms, without
damaging human tissue

• Antibiotics were first isolated by

Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928.
They revolutionized health care.
The Spread of antibiotic resistance
Resistance to antibiotics occurs through the transfer of plasmids carrying
antibiotic resistance genes from bacteria to bacteria.
 Help
Reduce
Antibiotic
Resistance
The Spread of antibiotic resistance
Bacteria are all around us!
• Any guesses what this is?
(You should be able to
name these bacteria by
shape)
In the heat of the summer of 1973 a weird phenomenon occurred in suburban backyards
near Dallas, Boston, and on Long Island.

Torn between alarm and fascination, residents watched in bewilderment as strange,

slithering, yellow blobs moved across their lawns and sometimes onto their porches.

Armed with their garden hoses, these suburbanites soon discovered that blasting the
moving blobs with water broke them apart, but the pieces continued
to crawl and grow.
- Were they alien invaders?
- Could they be stopped?
- Scientists assured the panicked public that the mysterious yellow blobs were
harmless slime molds, just one of the amazingly diverse types of living organisms
called PROTISTS.
Kingdom Protista – Key Characteristics
• Protists are eukaryotes
(therefore, they have a
nucleus and
membrane-bound
organelles)

• Protists are all found in

moist environments
Other than that, there is not much in common between
members of this Kingdom! They are kind of like the “junk
drawer” or “grab bag” of organisms that don’t really fit into the
other Kingdoms.

- In our current classification system, Protista will most likely

be the next group to see changes.

- Protists are extremely diverse in terms of their cell structure,

patterns of nutrition, metabolic needs, reproduction, and
habitats.
There are 3 Types of Protists:

Animal-like Plant-like Protists

Protists (Algae)
(Protozoans)

Fungus-like
Protists
(Molds)
Protozoans
Animal-like Protists; the Protozoans
• Protozoans obtain food by ingesting it, through eating
• This group is further broken down by how they move:

• Using flagella (long, tail-like structures) ex. watch this

flagellate move
• Using cilia (tiny, hair-like structures that beat in unison) ex.
watch how this Paramecium eats
• Using pseudopods (“false feet”) that are extensions of the
cell membrane and cytoplasm ex. watch this amoeba
move and ‘eat’ a paramecium
• Using no method (immobile). These are all parasites ex.
watch this video on Plasmodium, which causes malaria
1. Sarcodines
● Also known as amoebas.

● Move and engulf their prey

by producing “fake feet”
from their cytoplasm
called pseudopodia.
Amoeba in
Motion
2. Ciliates
● Covered by cilia that
beat in a
co-ordinated rhythm.

● Ex: Paramecia

● Cilia also help sweep

food particles into
the organism’s oral
groove
Paramecium in Motion
3. Flagellate
Have a flagella (or multiple) that whip from side to side
to move the organism.
Have a hard, protective covering.
4. Sporozoans
● Ex: Plasmodium vivax (causes malaria in
humans).
● An infected mosquito bites a person and the
parasite passes into the person’s blood
stream.
● The parasite invades and reproduces in the
liver.
● The spores reproduce in the blood,causing
blood cells to rupture.
Mosquitoes
Algae
Plant-like Protists; the Algae
• Algae obtain food by making it, usually through
photosynthesis
• Algae can be unicellular; some live in colonies; and a few are
multicellular (check out these giant kelp species; some can
reach 50m in length!)
• Algae are found in all natural bodies of water and produce
most of the oxygen required for life on Earth
• Algae are at the base of food chains and are the most
important food source for many aquatic organisms
1. Diatoms
• Have rigid cell walls
with an outer layer of
silica (tougher than
glass).

• Used in toothpastes.
2. Dinoflagellates
• Photosynthetic
• Contain 2 flagellae
• Can produce toxins to kill
fish or humans.
3. Euglenoids
Ex. Euglena
Small, with two flagellae – one usually
much longer than the other.
Contain chloroplasts.
Algae and Humans
• Humans eat algae…….
• Check nutrition labels for alginate or carrageenan … these
come from algae. Many foods such as ice cream,
mayonnaise, salad dressings, and chocolate milk, as well as
toothpaste and vitamins contain algae.
• Diatomaceous earth (from diatoms) is a good abrasive and is
often used for polishing metals and for cleaning skin. It makes
an excellent filter which is often used in swimming pools & hot
tubs.
• Diatom applications include forensics, nanotechnology, drug
delivery, biosensors, biofuels, and paint and metabolite
production.
• Harmful algal blooms (“Red tides”) occur when colonies of
algae grow out of control and produce harmful or toxic effects
on people, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, and birds.
 Fungus-like Protists; the Water & Slime Molds

• Slime and water molds are

heterotrophs
• They feed on decaying organic
matter and obtain food by
absorbing it, breaking it down
externally first (using enzymes)
• Their cells have cell walls, which
are made of cellulose
• Reproduction is by spores
Slime and Water Molds
1. Plasmodial Slime Mould
● Look like tiny slugs that creep over damp areas.
● Feed like amoebas, by engulfing prey.
2. Cellular Slime Moulds
● When food is unavailable,
these slime moulds fuse
together to form a
pseudoplasmodium (“fake
mould”).
● Release spores that can
survive unfavourable
conditions.
3. Water Moulds
● Live on dead organic
matter

● Also called
saprotrophs.
 1.9 The
Fungus
Kingdom
Intro to Fungi
→ What do we already know about fungi?

● How could we describe fungi using some

of the key terminology we have learned
so far this unit?

Ex: Nutritional patterns? Cell type? Cell

arrangement? How to they reproduce?
Oxygen requirements?
A. Characteristics of fungi
● eukaryotes (therefore, they have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles)
● heterotrophs which break down dead/decaying organic
matter
● most are multicellular but some are unicellular

● cells have a cell wall with chitin as the

structural material (as opposed to plants which
have a cell wall with cellulose)
● Can reproduce sexually, asexually or both
Fungi Structure

The basic structural

unit of fungi is called
a hypha (hyphae,
pleural)

Hyphae are long,

filamentous tubes
which absorb
nutrients from the
environment

Hyphae group
together in tangled
masses, forming
mycelium
● The only type of unicellular fungi is yeast
● Yeast reproduce by budding (see below right)
● Yeast undergo fermentation, producing ethanol and carbon
dioxide
B. Fungal Reproduction

Asexual method is called fragmentation; pieces of hypha break off and new
ones grow.

Most fungi produce spores.

● These spores can sustain harsh conditions and can be dispersed to

great distances.

Fungi are classified into 5 groups (phyla) based on their reproductive

patterns:
1. Imperfect Fungi

● Reproduce only asexually

● Since they lack a sexual phase,

they are called “imperfect fungi”.

● Spores are called conidia.

2. Chytrid Fungi

● Mostly unicellular.

● Aquatic species Spores

have flagella.

● Can be parasites or live

on decaying plants or
insects.
3. Zygospore Fungi
● Ex. Rhizopus stolonifera, bread mould
● During sexual reproduction, they produce diploid structures called
zygospores.
● Horizontal hyphae, called stolons, spread out over a surface.
4. Sac Fungi

● Ex. powdery mildews & truffles

used in gourmet meals.
● Largest group of fungi. Have
small sacs called asci which
contain ascospores.
● Released spores are dispersed
by wind, water, or animals.
5. Club Fungi

● Found as fairy rings, tree trunks, and

puffballs.
● Spores are called basidiospores, on
club-shaped hyphae called basidia.
Club Fungi

The hyphae grow rapidly underground and

the basidiocarps are produced in a circle
around the original mycelium.
Fungi in the world

In what ways do fungi benefit us? Explain your examples..

→ Come up with at least three specific examples.

Medical
Some fungi produce antibiotics.
The first antibiotic, penicillin, was
isolated from bread mold
Medical
Some fungi produce antibiotics.
The first antibiotic, penicillin, was
isolated from bread mold

Cyclosporine is obtained from a

fungus that lives in soil and is
used after transplant operations to
help suppress the patient’s
immune system. This helps to
avoid rejection of the transplanted
organ.
Environmental

● Fungi are considered

nature’s recyclers,
breaking down dead
organic matter, filling
important ecological
niches as decomposers

● Fungi can act as

biological insecticides
helping to preserve
biodiversity
Symbiotic
Fungi make many important connections with trees and other
plants
fungi + algae = lichens; the plants
supply the fungus with carbohydrates,
while the fungus provides a huge
surface area for absorbing water and
minerals which are important
environmental markers

fungi + tree roots = mycorrhizae; the

plants supply the fungus with
carbohydrates, while the fungus
provides a huge surface area for
absorbing water and minerals

The living soil beneath us →

Fungi as a
source of
food
 Truffles
● European white truffles can sell for as much as $3,600
a pound
● The most expensive truffle ever sold went for an
incredible $330,000!!
Negative impacts of fungi
What about ways that fungi can have a negative impact on us?

→ Come up with at least three specific examples

- food spoilage (bread molds, rotten fruit, etc..)

- Damage to property, some fungi can break down asphalt
- human health concerns

Ex: athlete’s foot, yeast infections, ringworm

Food Mold
Class Work

● Fungi + Protists worksheet

● Extra: Pages 47 ->51, 3
concept check questions +

Watch this on 6 ways that

“Fungi Can Save the World!”

→ Take brief, point-form notes

that explain why fungi are so
important.
Basidiomycetes - Mushroom Dissection

Examine your
mushroom using the
lens and dissecting
microscope. Make a
wet mount of a gill and
look for the spores
(reproductive
structures). Take a
picture of your
specimen.
1.9 The Plant
Kingdom
→ What do we already know about
plants?

● How could we describe plants using

some of the key terminology we
have learned so far this unit?

Ex: Nutritional patterns? Cell type? Cell

arrangement? Cell structure? How do
they reproduce? Oxygen requirements?
Kingdom Plantae – Key Characteristics
● eukaryotes (therefore, they have a nucleus
and membrane-bound organelles)
● autotrophs that make their own food
through photosynthesis
● plants are multicellular
● cells have a cell wall with cellulose as the
structural material (as opposed to fungi
which have a cell wall with chitin)
● can reproduce sexually, asexually, or both
● not motile (can’t move)
Aquatic Ancestors
● Ancestors of green plants began to
colonise the land about 500 million years
ago
● It is generally accepted that land plants
evolved from a group of green, freshwater
algae
● As a result of plant life on land, the planet
changed dramatically
● Land plant evolution also directed the
development of human civilization,
serving as the basis of agriculture,
clothing, medicines, etc.
B) The Shift to Land
1. What were some advantages to living on
land?

● Greater availability of light

● Greater availability of necessary
gasses (ex: Carbon Dioxide)
2. What were some disadvantages to living on
land?

● Risk of dehydration
● Predation
● Competition between/among
species
3. Needs for life on Land

● Protection from drying out

● The need for a transport system to

move water and other dissolved
substances

● A support system to lift the leaves

towards the light
Land plants have several adaptations which allowed them to survive the
evolution from aquatic life to terrestrial life:

waxy cuticle
(secreted on the surface; water
cannot leave the plant through this,
so it prevents the plant from drying
out)
stomata (these can inflate/deflate like bicycle
tires; they open or close to allow for gas
exchange and to prevent the loss of water)

gametangia (these are structures that

produce and store the gametes/sex cells)
Parts of a Plant
2. Reproductive Strategies

● The task of sexual reproduction

becomes more difficult.
● Gametes must move from one
organism to another, since they can no
longer depend on water.
● Male gametes are released in the form
of pollen grains.
● Pollen grains are carried to female plants, not by water, but by
wind, insects, or other animals.

● After fertilization, a seed develops and the maturing embryo

begins to grow.
Plant Phylogenies
Classification of Plants
Plants are loosely grouped into 4
groups, based on the presence or
absence of vascular tissue and of
seeds

These 4 groups are:

- Bryophytes (Mosses and their
relatives),
- Ferns and their relatives,
Gymnosperms (Cone-bearing
plants)
- Angiosperms (Flowering plants)
What is vascular tissue?
Vascular tissue is like plant plumbing
→ it’s a network of tubing that moves
around water and nutrients. Composed
of two parts….

● Xylem moves water from roots up to

plant cells

● Phloem moves sugars from leaves to

wherever needed
Together, xylem and phloem
form vascular bundles
What are seeds?
Seeds are structures that contain

an embryo (the immature plant);

→ immature root (the radicle), an immature

stem (the hypocotyl/epicotyl), and immature
leaves (the plumules)

cotyledon/endosperm (stored food)to

nourish the immature plant until it is above
ground and can undergo photosynthesis)

a seed coat (for protection)

 Mosses &
Relatives
(Bryophytes)

● Lack vascular
tissue to move
around water,
nutrients, or the
glucose made by
photosynthesis.

● Therefore they are

called
non-vascular
plants.
● Use diffusion and osmosis to absorb water and nutrients
from their surroundings, and therefore can only grow low to
the ground

● Gametes (sex cells) are produced and used for

reproduction; bryophytes therefore reproduce sexually.
Sperm must swim through water droplets to find egg.

● There are 3 main groups: Mosses, Liverworts, Hornworts

 Ferns and their
Relatives
● These plants have
vascular tissue, and
can thus grow
upwards from the soil
(the xylem can carry
water up)

● Possess true roots,

stems, and leaves
● Do not have seeds; reproduction is by spores

● Depend on water for fertilization, as the sperm must swim

on a layer of moisture to reach the egg; most found in moist
environments

● Group includes club mosses, horsetails, ferns, and whisk

ferns.
 Gymnosperms
(Cone-bearing
plants)
● Gymnosperms have vascular
tissue and seeds; they do not have
flowers
● The term "gymnosperm" literally
means "naked seed."
● This is because the seeds are not
encased in an ovary. Instead,
gymnosperm seeds are exposed,
and sit on the surface of the
cones.
● Most use pollen to transport the sperm cells

● Gymnosperms are often found in temperate forest and boreal

forest biomes. Common types of gymnosperms are conifers (the
largest group), cycads, and ginkgoes.

● Most (the conifer group) are evergreen and keep their leaves (the
needles) all year
Types of Gymnosperms

Gingkos Cycads Conifers

Gymnosperm
Reproduction
1. Gymnosperms
Adaptations of Conifers
● They have a pyramidal
shape to allow snow and
ice to slide off trees.
Adaptations of Conifers
● Protective covering of bark
which helps to protect stem
and prevent water loss
Adaptations of Conifers
● Needle like leaves have a
thick, waxy, cuticle, which
reduces the rate of
evaporation
Adaptations of Conifers
● Needles have a circular shape
which reduces surface area,
and reduces water loss by
evaporation
Adaptations of Conifers
● They are evergreen, so they
continually lose and replace
their needle like leaves all
year long, rather than lose
them all at once, like a
deciduous tree.
● By keeping leaves through the
winter, they are able to start
photosynthesis early in the
spring when the weather gets
warmer
Angiosperms
(Flowering
plants)

Angiosperms have
vascular tissue,
seeds and flowers

This is the most

‘successful’ group
of plants, meaning
the largest number
of species (over
250,000)
● Seeds are protected inside flowers

● Angiosperms display a huge variety of life forms including

trees, herbs, submerged aquatics, bulbs, grains, grasses,
vegetables, fruits, and traditional ‘flowers.’
What are Flowers and Fruits?
● Flowers are the reproductive
structures of angiosperms
● The walls of the ovary thicken after
fertilization, ripening into fruit. The fruit
protects the seed and helps disperse
seeds by wind, water, or animals.
Angiosperm Reproduction

● Don’t worry about the specifics

of plant reproduction. You
should understand that
flowers are the reproductive
structures

● Plants produce sex cells called

gametes (sperm in pollen and
eggs in ovaries) and therefore
plants (usually) undergo sexual
reproduction
Angiosperms: Monocots vs. Dicots
further divided into 2 broad categories,
based on the number of cotyledons
(storage areas in the seeds)

Monocots (monocotyledons) have 1

cotyledon
Dicots (dicotyledons) have 2 cotyledons
Angiosperm reproduction
Angiosperms are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves gametes (sex cells … egg and sperm). The offspring
inherit traits from both ‘parents’ and genetic variation results
Asexual reproduction involves vegetative propagation (without gametes) and creates
plants that are identical to the ‘parent’ ex. bulbs, rhizomes, runners, tubers
Plants in the world

In what ways do plants benefit us? Do some research and explain using
specific examples…

→ Come up with at least three specific examples.

● Produce oxygen for all aerobic ● Source of many medicinal
organisms products
● Important source of food
● Important culturally
● Produce lumber for building
materials ● Provide fibres and pigments
for clothing, makeup, paints
● Provide habitat for many wild
animals ● Provide shade and cooling

● Prevent erosion ● Ornamental and aesthetic

value
● Wood pulp for paper products
Are all plants autotrophs?

Watch:
Our Planet - Jungles 17:00
- 24:00
1.11 The
Animal
Kingdom
What is an animal?... what do
we know about them?

What characteristics do all

animals have in common?

What
characteristics do
most animals
have in common?
All animals are/have:
● Eukaryotes

● Multicellular

● Heterotrophic

● Mobile at some point in their life cycle

● Lacking cells with cell walls to provide structural support, as

seen in fungi and plants
Most animals:
● Reproduce sexually (internally or externally)

● Have cells that are organized into tissues

● Are diploid
→ (this is a term we will see in Genetics; it means that cells
have 2 copies of each chromosome – 1 copy from each
parent)

● Develop by blastula formation (the blastula is a hollow ball of

cells) that then develops into 3 distinct layers which give rise
to all tissues and organs
How do we group
animals into phylums and
classes?
1. Backbone

The presence or absence of

a backbone (spinal cord)

Of the 35 phyla in the animal

kingdom, only 1 has a
backbone and is therefore a
vertebrate … Phylum
Chordata.
All the species in the other 34
phyla lack backbones and are
therefore invertebrates.
2. Levels of Organization

Animals also differ in a process called

gastrulation, which involves infolding of cells
during embryonic development and gives rise to
germ layers. These germ layers become the 3
main tissue layers of the adult, and each goes
on to become different types of cells:
- endoderm (innermost) layer
- ectoderm (outermost) layer
- mesoderm (middle) layer
All animals other than sponges and cnidarians
have 3 layers of cells:
3. Symmetry

1. Most animals show one of two types of

body symmetry:

Bilateral symmetry, in which the body can

be divided into right and left sides. There is
only one ‘slice’ that can divide the body into
two mirror images

Radial symmetry, in which the body is

arranged around a central axis. Any ‘slice’
through the central axis will divide into mirror
images
4. Body Cavities
Body Cavity
Animals also differ according to the presence/absence as well as the type of body
cavity they possess. The body cavity (a fluid filled space called a coelom)
surrounds the central digestive tract between the mouth and anus in most
animals. Impacts on body structure?
Ex: Flatworms are acoelomates (no coelom), so their bodies are solid
between their outer surface and the cavity of the digestive tract. They lack both
circulatory and respiratory systems and depend on diffusion to move around
gases and nutrients. This means there are limits on body thickness … and so,
flatworms are flat!

Internal, fluid Filled Cavity,

Coleom provides rigidity and support
5. Segmentation

● Segmentation is the division of the body

into repetitive sections.
● Two advantages:
6. Movement

● Some organisms are sessile

● stationary as adults.
● Sessile organisms can be
mobile during juvenile stages.
 Animal
Phylogeny
Animals are usually
grouped by their
anatomical features

Genetic data has

recently become
more important
Evolutionary Milestones (note that some milestones arose independently several times)

Examples of phyla and the evolutionary milestones that distinguish them:

Phylum Examples Evolutionary Milestone
Chordata Notochord
Echinodermata Deuterostomes
Arthropoda Jointed appendages
Annelida Segmentation
Mollusca Coelom
Nematoda Pseudocoelom
Platyhelminthes Bilateral symmetry
Cnidaria Formation of tissues
Porifera Multicellularity
Animal Phyla
● There are 35 animal phyla. You do not need to know all of them!
● You should, however, be aware of the 9 phyla we will highlight. Use the
animal kingdom worksheet to help fill in the ‘examples’ column on the previous
slide
Adding in a few
more derived
characters to our
phylogenetic
tree…
B) Invertebrate Animals: Examples of phyla
1. Porifera (Sponges)

● Remain attached to a solid surface

● Filter food from passing water
● One opening through which food
enters and exits
Porifera

1. Outer layer = flattened cells

(form a protective wall)

2. Inner layer = flagellated

cells, (beat in coordinated
motion to drive water through
sponge)
2. Cnidarians (Cnidaria)

● Single cell opening

surrounded by
tentacles

● Cnidarians
alternate between
2 body forms:
ex. hydra, sea anemone ex. jellyfish
3 Phylums of worms
i) Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

● Ex: tapeworms, flukes, and planarians.

● Digestive system = tube arrangement.
ii. Annelida (Segmented Worms)

● Ex: earthworms, marine bristle worms, leeches

● Body is divided into segments; each segment contains similar sets of organs
iii. Nematoda (Roundworms)

● long & narrow body

(thread-like)
● many can suspend their life
processes completely when
conditions are unfavorable and
return to life when favorable
conditions return.
● live in almost every geographic
location on Earth
● live on or in almost every living
plant and animal
4. Molluscs (Mollusca)
Ex: slugs, snails,
clams, oysters,
octopus, and squid

● Most species
protect
themselves with
a hard-external
shell
● Have bilateral symmetry, a coelom, and two
body openings
5. Echinoderms (Echinodermata)
Ex: starfish, sea urchins, sea
cucumbers, and sand dollars

● Have radial symmetry as adults,

and bilateral symmetry as larvae
● The process of moving from one
form of symmetry to another is
called metamorphosis
● Starfish can reproduce asexually
(by fragmentation)
6. Arthropods (Arthropoda)
Includes classes: Insecta,
Arachnida, Crustacea

Ex: crayfish, spiders,

grasshopper

● Largest phylum
● Have a hard, external
cuticle
● Have legs that are
divided into moveable
segments connected by
joints
C. Phylum Chordata (Vertebrate Animals)

● Distinguishing feature: have a

notochord - a rod-shaped structure
that extends the length of the body,
used to move muscles.
● The notochord forms in the
embryo...becoming the brain and spinal
cord.
1. Fish- Class Pisces

● Have both backbone and bony skeleton

● Subdivided into 2 groups:
- Agnathans (or jawless fish, ex: lampreys)
- Gnathostomata (jawed animals)
2. Amphibians (Class Amphibia)
● Developed limbs, and evolved from fish
● Live in moist or aquatic environments
● Known as tetrapods - have 4 moveable limbs.
3. Reptiles (Class Reptilia)

● Developed an amnion, to hold the developing fetus, and evolved from

amphibians.
● Have body scales - creates a waterproof barrier.
● Gender of offspring is determined by incubation temperature.
4. Birds (Class Aves)
● Developed feathers.
● Endothermic - maintain a constant
internal temperature regardless of their
surrounding.
● Have a 4-chambered heart.
● Contain air sacs as part of their
respiratory system.
5. Mammals (Class Mammalia)
GENETICS UNIT
SBI 3U
Genetic Processes
Genetics Unit Overview:

What do we already know about

genetics?

What would you like to learn about?

What questions do you have about

genetics?
As we work our way through this unit, the following will be covered:

• The concepts of DNA, genes, alleles and chromosomes and how they account
for the transmission of hereditary characteristics

• In Gr. 10, the focus of cell division was on mitosis; in Gr. 11, the focus is on
meiosis

• We will also look at errors in cell division and their consequences

• We will examine the inheritance of traits from one generation to the next, and the
different inheritance patterns that are commonly seen

• Reproductive technologies, as well as current and emerging genetic

techniques and technologies will be studied.
Applications
of
Genetics?
Genetics is the study of genes and their
roles in inheritance……

In other words, the way that certain Traits

or conditions are passed down from one
generation to another.

Genetics involves scientific studies of genes

and their effects.
How can our DNA affect us?

Genes are units of

heredity;

→ they carry the

instructions for making
proteins, which direct the
activities of cells and
functions of the body

What are Traits?

What is DNA?
Type of nucleic acid . It stores all of the genetic
information of an organism.

- DNA is made of many nucleotide units which

bond together and form a double helix.

- The sequence of the bases (A, T, G, C) form the

instructions.
Functions of the Nucleic Acids

DNA contains all of the genetic information (the genome) for all living
organisms. It stores the genetic information and passes it on to the
next generation.

DNA regulates cellular activity and holds all of the instructions (in
genes) necessary to make proteins. Like words in a sentence, the DNA
sequence of a gene determines the amino acid sequence for the
protein it encodes.

RNA interprets the information in DNA and uses it to synthesize

proteins.
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
→ Since we have A LOT of DNA in each cell (2m in each nucleus!), it needs to be
packaged in a highly efficient manner.
→ EACH nucleated diploid cell contains an organism’s entire genome. For humans, our
genome includes 3 billion bases. That's enough information to fill roughly 1,000
200-page books!

A genome consists of the complete genetic

makeup of an organism … it includes ALL of the
DNA. For humans, our genome includes all of the
genetic information in our 46 chromosomes
• Contained within the 3 billion letters (nitrogenous
bases) of the human genome are about 21,000
genes. These genes code for proteins.
What’s a Genome?
The Human Genome
Click here if you
would like to zoom in
on any of these
regions.

This site gives

information on each
of a human’s 23
chromosomes.
Organization of DNA
Depending on what
stage of a cells life cycle
it is in, the genetic
material (DNA) takes on
different forms and is
given different names
at each stage…
Analogy:
Water through
different states
The Cell Cycle
Chromatin: Chromosomes: Chromatids:

During As the cell prepares to divide, the Prior to the cell division…
interphase, chromatin shortens, thickens, DNA replicates and each
the DNA condenses and becomes visible as chromosome makes an
appears as chromosomes identical copy. These are
chromatin called sister chromatids
Fill in the blanks for the diagram below, using the words to the right.
DNA and Proteins
→ What is the importance of proteins?

→ Could you list any proteins that serve

a function in the human body?

Video: What are proteins?

Watch these videos on the different types

of DNA found in individuals.
Why are Proteins (coded for by genes!) important?
Where are your genes?
Chromosome Structure:

These segments on the

chromosome are called genes

Genes are coding sections of

Watch this video recap DNA.
on DNA, genes and
proteins. They code for (have
instructions) for proteins.
What are Chromosomes?

Read through this page to

learn more about
chromosomes.

How is the DNA packaged

as chromosomes? Watch
this video (1:43)
What are Homologous Chromosomes?
Chromosomes that have genes for the same traits at the same loci
(location).

→ Alleles are alternate forms of a gene. Watch this video on

alleles.

The information encoded by the alleles for each gene on

homologous chromosomes may not be the same.
→ Why?
• Because the information (genes on chromosomes) comes from 2
different people. 1 gene is on the mom’s chromosome and 1
gene is on the dad’s chromosome
Let C represent the ability to produce
catalase Example: Chromosome #11
Let c represent the inability to
produce catalase
Let P represent the ability to produce
pigment
Let p represent the inability to
produce pigment

Let H represent the ability to

produce hemoglobin
Let h represent the inability to
produce hemoglobin
Let I represent the ability to
produce insulin
Let i represent the inability to Maternal Paternal
produce insulin
Analogy:

→ How are shoes “homologous?”

• They come in pairs

• Each member of the pair is similar
to the other
• Each member of a pair is not
identical, since we have a left shoe
and a right shoe
Homozygous vs. Heterozygous

We would describe the information for insulin and

pigment production as being heterozygous, because the
alleles for each gene are different
• Ex. Ii
Pp } heterozygous

We would describe the information for hemoglobin and

catalase production as being homozygous, because the
alleles for each gene are the same
• Ex. HH – homozygous dominant
cc – homozygous recessive
Dominant vs. Recessive & Gene Expression
The Dominant allele is the one that is expressed when
found in the heterozygous condition
What does “expressed” mean?
If a gene is expressed, this means that…. the
protein the gene codes for is made.

The recessive allele ex. “i” or “p” can be

masked/hidden by the dominant allele. We say that
the recessive allele is not expressed when found in the
heterozygous condition.
• The only way a recessive gene can be expressed
occurs when the individual is homozygous
recessive for that trait.
Genotype vs. Phenotype
The genotype refers to the genetic information present in an individual. If you are asked for
a genotype, your answer would consist of writing the alleles present.
Ex. HH is a genotype

The phenotype refers to the physical expression of the genotype of an individual. If you are
asked for a phenotype, your answer would consist of a description of how the genes are
expressed.
Ex: The person can produce hemoglobin
→ Often, a phenotype can be determined by the physical appearance ex. Brown hair or blue
eyes would be phenotypes.
Heterozygous for traits Homozygous for traits
Using G for green pods (dominant) and g
for yellow pods (recessive)
a) a pea plant that is homozygous
dominant would be denoted as ______.
b) a pea plant that is homozygous recessive
would be denoted as ______.
c) a pea plant that is heterozygous would
be denoted as ______.

Using P for purple flowers (dominant) and

p for white flowers (recessive):
a) a pea plant that is white would be
denoted as ______.
b) a pea plant that is purple would be
denoted as ______ or ______.
Answers
Using G for green pods (dominant) and g
for yellow pods (recessive) :
a) a pea plant that is homozygous
dominant would be denoted as GG .
b) a pea plant that is homozygous recessive
would be denoted as gg .
c) a pea plant that is heterozygous would
be denoted as Gg .

Using P for purple flowers (dominant) and

p for white flowers (recessive) :
a) a pea plant that is white would be
denoted as pp .
b) a pea plant that is purple would be
denoted as PP or Pp .
Diploid vs. Haploid
In all nucleated somatic cells, there are 2 copies of each chromosome. 1 copy
comes from ‘dad’ and 1 copy comes from ‘mom.’
• In humans, we have 2 x 23 = 46 chromosomes in our somatic [Link] is
called the diploid, or 2N, number of chromosomes. In humans, 2N = 46

In all sex cells (gametes), there is just 1 copy of each chromosome. There is
EITHER the chromosome from ‘dad’ OR the chromosome from ‘mom.’
• In humans, we have 1 x 23 = 23 chromosomes in our gametes. This is called
the haploid, or N, number of chromosomes. In humans, N = 23
Somatic cells vs. Germ Cells & Sex Cells (Gametes)
Somatic cells are ‘regular’ body cells i.e. every cell that is a non-reproductive cell is a
somatic cell. “Soma” means ‘body’ in Greek

- Somatic cells are created through mitosis

- Somatic cells have 2 copies of each chromosome i.e. chromosomes occur in
homologous pairs …
1 chromosome comes from mom and 1 chromosome comes from dad. Somatic cells
contain the diploid/2N number of chromosomes
Somatic cells vs. Germ Cells & Sex Cells (Gametes)
Gametes are sex cells. In humans, ova and sperm are the
gametes; these are the reproductive cells.

They are created by germ cells, which are diploid cells in

the gonads (reproduction tissue)
→ ovaries in females and testes in males.

- Gametes are created through meiosis

- Gametes have only 1 copy of each chromosome
from each homologous pair … EITHER the
chromosome from mom OR the chromosome from
dad. Gametes/sex cells contain the haploid/N
number of chromosomes
Practice: Haploid vs. Diploid

Fill in the chart

with the proper
chromosome
numbers.
Answers: Haploid vs. Diploid

Check your
answers.
2 Types of Cells:
Chromosome
Comparisons

Can have diff number of

chromosomes for diff
organisms….

Watch this video up to the

5:50 mark. A great review
of these terms!
Why is it important that meiosis reduces the chromosome
number by half ?
Meiosis, Fertilization, and Mitosis
Autosomal Chromosomes vs. Sex Chromosomes
We have chromosomes with genes on them which determine sex (male vs. female).
→ For humans, these are called the sex chromosomes, designated as X and Y. The sex
chromosomes are pair #23.

Question: Are the sex chromosomes homologous or not homologous? What other information
do you need to answer this?

Answer:
The sex chromosomes are homologous if a person is female. Why? Because females have 2 “X”
chromosomes and these DO have genes for the same traits at the same loci.
The sex chromosomes are not homologous if a person is male.

Why? Because males have 1 “X” chromosome and 1 “Y” chromosome and these do NOT have
genes for the same traits at the same loci.
We also have chromosomes with
genetic information unrelated to
determination of gender.

For humans, these are called the

autosomal chromosomes.

The autosomal chromosomes are

pairs # 1 through to #22

Watch this video (2 mins)

for a review of DNA,
genes and chromosomes.
Can you answer this summary question?
Q: Explain (by the end of this unit!) how a difference in the sequence of nucleotides in a
gene can result in one boy being albino and the other boy having pigmented skin and
hair color.

A complete answer will include these terms:

→ DNA, gene, allele, sequence, amino acids, protein, pigment

The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of a gene
→ determines the sequence of amino acids in a
protein
→ which determines the structure and function
of the protein
→ which influences the characteristics or traits of
the organism.

In the DNA, each gene has a sequence of

nucleotides that spell out the instructions for a
sequence of amino acids that make a protein.
 Protein Characteristic
Gene in DNA

One version of this gene gives the Functional enzyme makes Normal skin and hair
instructions to make functional melanin, the pigment color
protein enzyme. molecule in skin and hair.

Another version of this gene gives the Nonfunctional protein Albinism (very pale
instructions to make a nonfunctional does not make melanin. skin and hair)
version of this protein.
 Nucleus A Nucleus B

1. Diploid or Haploid? _________________ Diploid or Haploid? _________________

2. Somatic or Gamete? _________________ Somatic or Gamete? _________________
[Link] this person male or female? _________________ Is this person male or female? ____________
4. Which type of cell division created these cells – mitosis or meiosis? __________________________________
5. Are there any homologous pairs of chromosomes in the pictures above? If so, how many pairs?
Nucleus A: _________________
Nucleus B: _________________
 Nucleus C Nucleus D

1. Diploid or Haploid? _________________ Diploid or Haploid? _________________

2. Somatic or Gamete? _________________ Somatic or Gamete? _________________
3. From ovum, sperm, or either? _________________ From ovum, sperm, or either? _______________
4. Which type of cell division created these cells – mitosis or meiosis? __________________________________
5. Are there any homologous pairs of chromosomes in the pictures above? If so, how many pairs?
Nucleus C: _________________
Nucleus D: _________________
The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

• What is the point of mitosis/why does it happen?

Growth
Repair of damaged cells
Replace old cells
• Mitosis begins with one parent somatic cell ("soma" is Greek for
"body"; somatic cells are all of our nonreproductive cells);
• Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells (identical to each other
and to the original parent cell)

• This video (5:42) has a great review of mitosis

Watch this video (1:52) for a review of mitosis.
The Cell Cycle
 Protein Characteristic
Gene in DNA

One version of this gene gives Functional enzyme makes Normal skin and
the instructions to make melanin, the pigment hair color
functional protein enzyme. molecule in skin and hair.

Another version of this gene gives Nonfunctional protein Albinism (very pale
the instructions to make a does not make melanin. skin and hair)
nonfunctional version of this protein.
3U Genetics
Meiosis
Cell Division Review: Mitosis
Starting/End?
- Starts with 1 diploid (2N) somatic cell
- Ends with 2 diploid (2N) somatic cells, each identical to each other and
the parent cell.

Why does mitosis occur?

- Mitosis occurs for growth, repair and replacement.
- Most of a cells life is spent in interphase, with organelles doing their
jobs… then at some point…
→ cell division begins, and cell will go through PMAT, then
cytokinesis. (DNA replicated before mitosis begins)
Our Focus: Meiosis
Starting/end?
- Starts with 1 diploid (2N) found in reproductive tissue
- It ends with 4 haploid (N) sex cells/gametes, each of which is genetically
different from eachother and the parent cell.

Why does it occur?

- Meiosis occurs in order to produce sex cells which may go on to create the
next generation (new life).
→ In humans, meiosis begins at puberty; the process which involves 2 rounds
of division.

- Prior to cell division the DNA will replicate and the cell will go through
meiosis I (P1, M1, A1, T1) then meiosis 2 (P2, M2, A2, T2)
Overview of Meiosis

Watch this video

(2:11) for an
introduction to
inheritance
Key Points to Understand:

1. How the gametes (sex cells) all end up being genetically

unique/different from each other.

Pay attention to the events which occur during Prophase I and

Metaphase I for this.

2. How the chromosome number is cut in half (meiosis is called a

reductive division) and why it is necessary for this to happen.

Pay attention to the number of rounds of cell division and the number
of interphases (remember that DNA replicates during interphase)
 We will follow 1 hypothetical nucleus through
some of the key events of meiosis:
This ‘pretend nucleus’ contains 2 human
chromosomes - #11 and #19, with genes
for proteins you can check on the Human
Chromosome Sheet

Let the following letters represent the

alleles for the following traits/proteins:
H/h : hemoglobin or not
I/i : insulin or not
P/p : pigment or no pigment
R/r : receptor or not
B/b : not blue or blue eyes
Prophase I

During prophase I, the

event of crossover
occurs.

The non-sister
chromatids in the tetrad
physically cross their
arms over each other
and genes are “cut and
pasted” onto their
homologue.
 - Which chromosomes
participate in crossover (we
have 23 ) different
chromosomes

- Which genes on the

chromosomes are involved
(we have over 20,000
genes)
Why is crossover important?
- How many genes per
→ Crossover is VERY important for chromosome crossover
creating genetically unique gametes!! It is (there can be multiple
random every time with respect to….. genes on each that ‘swap’)
Metaphase I

For Each pair of homologous chromosomes, there are 2 diff ways that they can
line up along the equator.

With 22 (2 choices, 2 chromosomes) ways to line up along the equator.

Humans have 23 pairs of

chromosomes…..

This means we have 223 = 8 388 608

ways to line up….

→ genetically unique gametes

The remaining stages of
meiosis:

• The remaining stages of meiosis

result in the creation of 4 haploid
gametes.

• There is no second interphase

between Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
This ensures the genetic information
is not doubled again

• Watch this video (3:20) on meiosis

• Interphase begins with a diploid cell
• Look at the cell shown below and answer the following questions:
1. How many pairs of homologous chromosomes are there?
2 pairs (1 big pair and 1 small pair)
2. What is the diploid #?
4
3. What is the haploid #?
2
4. How many chromosomes should be in the gametes at
the end of meiosis?

2 (1 big chromosome and 1 small chromosome

i.e. 1 member from each pair)
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Summary of Meiosis:
Summary of Meiosis:
Creation of new life: - for fill in the blanks
Meiosis creates haploid cells In order for a new organism to form i.e. the next
generation, the gametes must join together via a process called Fertilization. These
gametes both contain the N number of chromosomes; the first cell that is created by
their fusion contains the 2 N number of chromosomes and is called the [Link]
zygote then undergoes cell division using the process of mitosis and a new
organism is the result.

Both ‘parents’ go through meiosis and create genetically unique gametes. This
genetic variation is further increased by meiosis occurring in both individuals and
the chromosomes from two individuals can then combine in many ways.

Increased genetic variation produces a more resilient population that is more likely
to withstand environmental change such as climate change . Genetic variation is
essential for the process of evolution.
Creation of gametes in humans
Gametogenesis is the general term for creating gametes.

In males, spermatogenesis creates sperm. Four viable sperm result from the
process.

In females, oogenesis creates ova (eggs).

- Due to the unequal distribution of cytoplasm during this process, only
one viable ovum is created; the other (non-viable) products of oogenesis
are called polar bodies.
- An ovum is released each month from puberty through menopause….
Finite amount
Spermatogenesis
vs.
Oogenesis
Meiosis, Changes to Chromosome
Numbers, and Karyotypes
What happens when chromosomes don’t properly
separate?

→ Nondisjunction

• This is a process involving the unequal separation of

chromosomes during anaphase.
• It can occur in Anaphase I or Anaphase II
If there is a failure of the
homologous chromosomes to
separate during Anaphase I,
then all gametes will be
affected.
→ Half will have the “N+1”
number and half will have the
“N-1” number of chromosomes
If there is a failure of the centromere
to split during Anaphase II, then half
the gametes will be affected.
• If the sister chromatids do not
separate, the result is that 2
chromosomes from that pair,
instead of 1, end up in one gamete
while no chromosomes from that
pair end up in another gamete.
• Those gametes created will
therefore have the “N+1” or “N-1”
number, respectively.
Meiosis is represented by #1 and #2.
What event is depicted at #3?
What does #4 represent?
If this failure to separate is
confined to the gamete, then
there will not be any effect.

• Remember … gametes may go

on to create the next
generation, but most do not
ever become fertilized.

• However, if the affected gamete

is FERTILIZED (joins with
another gamete) then the
zygote formed WILL be affected.
 - If a zygote is formed from a gamete that has experienced a
non-disjunction event, that zygote (like most somatic cells) goes
through mitosis to create identical cells.

- The resulting offspring will therefore have extra or missing

chromosomes in every cell of their body.

Conditions that arise from nondisjunction events include:

• Patau’s Syndrome (trisomy 13)
• Edwards Syndrome (trisomy 18)
• Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)
• Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)
• Turner’s Syndrome / Fragile X (monosomy X)
Karyotypes
• Karyotypes are organized pictures of the chromosomes found in
the nucleus

• In order to see chromosomes under a microscope, the

chromosomes have to be in their most compact form in a phase of
cell division – mitosis - known as metaphase.

• The chromosomes are stained to make them visible, a photograph

is taken, then the chromosomes are cut out from the picture.
Karyotypes
A geneticist then pairs them up into homologous pairs, and they are
arranged into what is called a karyotype.
• By carefully examining the chromosomes, geneticists can
determine if there are any missing or extra chromosomes, or if
sections of chromosomes have been deleted.

(Several of the worksheets we have used have been karyotypes, we

just didn’t call them that.)
Questions:

• What kind of genetic information CAN you obtain from a

karyotype?

• What kind of genetic information can you NOT obtain from a

karyotype?
3U Genetics
Gregor Mendel and the
Inheritance of Traits
Mendel called the first generation of hybrids the F1 generation, and he went on to call their offspring
the F2 generation. (F stands for “filial”, from the Latin word for daughter or son.)

From these results, what can you conclude regarding which traits are dominant and which are
recessive?
Why Pea Plants?
The pea plant was an excellent choice because:
• they can self-pollinate
• they are inexpensive
• easily grown, taken care of, and controlled
• they have quick maturation
• they are easily quantified (counted)
• they demonstrate numerous obvious, contrasting traits

• Mendel could decide which plants/which traits to breed by using his scissors
and paintbrush to transfer pollen from one plant to another
• Mendel kept detailed records of the plants’ traits in each generation
• Over a period of 8 years (and thousands and thousands of pea plants!), he
discovered patterns in the way parents’ physical traits were passed to their
offspring
A One-Trait “Monohybrid” Cross
Law of Dominance :

in a cross involving two

contrasting purebred
traits, the one that is
expressed is dominant,
the other trait is
recessive.
Mendel’s Conclusion:
1. That each parent pea plant had two “factors” that
determine each trait. Only one of these factors was passed
on from each parent to the next generation.
We now call Mendel’s “factors” what? .
The alternate forms are called what? .

2. This conclusion is now called Mendel’s First Law, or the Law

of Segregation: Traits are handed down to the next
generation through genes. Parents contain two alleles for
every trait, however these segregate (separate from each
other) during the formation of sex cells. The result being
that each egg or sperm receives only ONE allele from the
pair.

3. Relate Mendel’s conclusion to the terms haploid and

diploid.
Parents and offspring are .
Gametes are .
The 7 traits found in pea plants:
A One-Trait “Monohybrid” Cross :
Question:
A true-breeding plant with yellow seeds is crossed with a true-breeding plant with
green seeds. Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the F1 generation, and
the phenotype ratio seen in the F2 generation.

Step 1: Identify your alleles.

→ Generate your ‘let’ statement. Always use the same letter for both alleles.
Capital for dominant allele, and lowercase and cursive for recessive allele.

Let Y represent yellow seeds

Let y represent green seeds
Step 2: State the parental (“P”) genotypes.
P: YY x yy

Step 3: Determine the possible gametes created by the parents.

→ Remember – parents and offspring are diploid; gametes are haploid. There’s an
equal chance of one allele OR the other being passed into the gametes (it’s like
flipping a coin).
gametes: Y or Y ; y or y

NOTE: Anytime you say “or” you will draw a line in your Punnett square to separate
the alleles

Step 4: Transfer the gametes into a Punnett square.

Use your results to answer any questions regarding the F1 generation.
Punnett squares
• Named after Reginald Punnett, the geneticist who developed them.
• A Punnett square shows all the ways that the alleles in a cross can be combined.
• They represent an easy way to predict how alleles will be inherited in the next
generation

• To construct a Punnett square for a one-trait

cross, you must determine which two alleles are
present in each parent, and then arrange the
alleles along the top and left side of the grid
• Each cell in the grid (there are 4 cells in the grid
for a one-trait cross) represents one of the
possible combinations of the parents’ alleles in
their offspring
The F1 Generation
OR… you can make a simplified
version of the punnett square if there is
only one potential outcome.

Genotype: 100% of the F1 generation

are heterozygous Yy

Phenotype: 100% of the F1 generation

are yellow
Step 5: Cross the offspring from the
F1 generation to obtain the F2
generation

P: Yy x Yy

Step 6: Determine the possible

gametes created by these parents.

gametes: Y or y ; Y or y
Step 7: Transfer the
gametes into a Punnett
square.

Use your results to answer

any questions regarding the
F2 generation.

REMEMBER: Anytime you

say “or” you will draw a line
in your Punnett square to
separate the alleles
Final answer: The F2 Generation

Phenotypic ratio = 3:1

yellow : green
Practice Question:
A true-breeding round pea was crossed with a wrinkled pea. Determine the
genotypes and phenotypes in the F1 generation, and the phenotype ratio in the F2
generation.

1. Let R rep. round

Let r rep. Wrinkled
2. P: RR x r r

3. Gametes: R or R ; r or r Note: since these are the same, we will simplify

our Punnett square and ‘reduce’ at the start
5. P: Rr x Rr
6. gametes: R or r ; R or r
Monohybrid crosses
More Pea Experiments …
• Mendel continued his experiments by adding a second trait to the mix: seed
texture (smooth or wrinkled). He started with homozygous pea plants that
produced round yellow peas or wrinkled green peas.

• He knew from his earlier experiments that round was dominant to wrinkled,
and yellow dominant to green.

• He again found that the recessive traits disappeared in the F1 generation but
reappeared when two F1 individuals were crossed to produce an F2
generation.

→ Mendel discovered that the two traits were NOT always inherited together
as the original pair of traits
→ the two types of alleles could be passed on in any combination of traits.
Mendel’s Conclusion:
1. Whichever “factor” that is passed on when an individual mates is
passed on independently of any other “factor.”

2. This conclusion is now called Mendel’s Second Law, or the Law of

Independent Assortment:

→ Alleles are inherited independently of each other.

Ex: Different characteristics (like colour and shape) can be inherited in any
combination of traits.
Which stage of meiosis
creates the law of
independent
assortment?

Metaphase I
A Two-Trait “Dihybrid” Cross :
Question:
A true-breeding plant with round and yellow seeds is crossed with a plant having
wrinkled, green seeds. Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the F1 generation,
and the phenotype ratio seen in the F2 generation.

Step 1: Identify your alleles. (Your ‘let’ statement.)

Let Y represent yellow seeds Let R rep. round seeds

Let y rep. green seeds Let r rep wrinkled seeds

Step 2: State the parental (“P”) genotypes (each parent has 2 alleles for each of 2
traits)

P: RRYY x rryy
Step 3: Determine the possible gametes created by the parents.
Remember – parents and offspring are diploid; gametes are haploid. Parents pass on
information for BOTH traits, colour AND shape, so there will be 2 different alleles in each
gamete – but only 1 allele for each of the 2 traits.

→ You need to find all the combinations of alleles possible for each parent.

gametes: RY or RY; ry or ry (If gametes are the same, you can reduce!)

NOTE: Anytime you say “or” you will draw a line in your Punnett square to separate the
alleles; anytime you say “and” you must include a different letter

Step 4: Transfer the gametes into a Punnett square.

Use your results to answer any questions regarding the F1 generation
The F1 generation

Genotype: Phenotype:
100% RrYy 100% round and yellow
Step 5: Cross the offspring from the F1 generation to obtain the F2 generation.

P: RrYy x RrYy

Step 6: Determine the possible gametes created by these parents.

Remember – parents and offspring are diploid; gametes are haploid. Parents pass on
information for BOTH traits, colour AND shape, so there will be 2 different alleles in each
gamete – but only 1 allele from each trait.

→ You need to find all the combinations of alleles possible for each parent.
Step 7: Transfer the gametes into a Punnett square.

You will need a large, 4 x 4 grid. Use your results to answer any questions regarding the F2
generation.

Phenotype ratio:

9 : 3: 3 : 1
round round wrinkled wrinkled
and : and : and : and
yellow green yellow green

Watch this animation of a dihybrid cross.

Dihybrid crosses
The Test Cross
• Mendel carried out a third type of cross, which he called a test cross.
• The test cross allowed him to sometimes determine the genotype of an organism
with the dominant phenotype.
Ex: a round yellow pea could have any of these genotypes:
→ RRYY, RrYY, RRYy, RrYy

He crossed the parent with the unknown genotype with a parent that had the
recessive phenotype(s) ex. a green wrinkled pea. Since the phenotype was
recessive, he knew the genotype must also be recessive ex. rryy. And, because the
recessive parent could only pass on recessive alleles (ex: ry) to the next generation,
any recessive alleles in the unknown parent would then be displayed.
• By examining the phenotypes of the offspring from the test cross,
Mendel could sometimes determine the unknown genotype of the
parent
• Say for example the round yellow pea had the genotype RrYy, then
Mendel knew he should expect to see a 1:1:1:1 ratio of round yellow:
round green: wrinkled yellow: wrinkled green
Mendelian Genetics
Traits that are determined by 2 alleles which display a dominant/recessive relationship
are said to be governed by Mendelian genetics. For these traits, we use one uppercase
(capital) letter to represent the dominant trait, and one lowercase letter to represent
the recessive trait.
We will also be examining traits which are not inherited in this manner:

→ Some traits are governed by multiple alleles (more than 2 alleles).

→ Some traits are governed by alleles which do not display a dominant/recessive
relationship.
→ And other traits are found on (and are therefore “linked to”) the X chromosome.
For these traits, we will have to designate our alleles in a manner other than simply
using uppercase and lowercase letters.

Watch this video (16 mins) for a good review of Mendelian genetics
Non-Mendelian
Inheritance
Mendelian Genetics
Traits that are determined by 2 alleles which display a dominant/recessive
relationship are said to be governed by Mendelian genetics.

For these traits, we use one uppercase (capital) letter to represent the dominant trait,
and one lowercase letter to represent the recessive trait.

We will also be examining traits which are not inherited in this manner…..
We will also be examining traits which are not inherited in this manner…..
→ Some traits are governed by multiple alleles (more than 2 alleles).
→ Some traits are governed by alleles which do not display a dominant/recessive
relationship.
→ And other traits are found on (and are therefore “linked to”) the X chromosome.

Can you think of any examples?

→ For these traits, we will have to designate our alleles in a manner other than simply
using uppercase and lowercase letters.
Many traits are controlled by alleles which do not display a simple dominant/recessive
relationship.
→ ex. human blood types involve 3 alleles - some show dominant/recessive but others
show codominance (alleles are both dominant and therefore are both expressed ... this
means the proteins the genes codes for are BOTH made)

• Some traits are influenced by several genes; these genes may be on the same
chromosome or may be on different chromosomes ex. human eye or hair colour, skin
tone

• Still other traits are found on the X chromosome, and are therefore “linked to” the X
chromosome.

→ We call these traits ‘sex-linked’ traits. Ex. colour-blindness, Duchene’s muscular

dystrophy, hemophilia
Incomplete Dominance
With incompletely dominant alleles, neither gene will be fully expressed in
heterozygotes ...

- This means that the proteins coded for by both alleles will both be produced
in small amounts, but neither one in an amount to dominant the other.
Incomplete dominance results in the blending of phenotypes in
heterozygotes

Ex: Common in petal colour in flowers, and in some coat colours.

- Since the alleles involved do NOT display a dominant/recessive relationship,

uppercase and lowercase alleles are not appropriate…. So we use a different
set up of letters to represent alleles.

Ex: R for red and W for white

Incomplete Dominance Example

Ex: Flower colour is determined

by two incompletely dominant
alleles.

A true-breeding red flower is

crossed with a true-breeding
white flower.

Determine the phenotype ratios

in F1 and F2.
Steps to completing the problem
Step 1: Create your let statement
Let R Represent Red Petals, let W represent White Petals

Step 2: Determine the parental Genotypes

RR x WW

Step 3: Determine alleles and create punnett Square

Step 4: Add alleles to punnett Square
R
- Determine potential combinations W RW
for offspring in F1 Generation

Step 5: Determine Ratios

Phenotypic Ratio = 100% Pink petals

Genotypic Ratio = 100% RW
Part 2: F2 Generation

Step 1: Determine Parental Genotypes F2 R W

RW x RW R RR RW
W RW WW
Step 2: Add alleles to punnett Square and
determine potential combinations for
offspring in F2 Generation

Step 3: Determine Ratios

Phenotypic Ratio = 1 Red : 2 Pink : 1 White

Genotypic Ratio = 1RR : 2 RW : 1 WW
Codominance
Codominant alleles are both dominant and
therefore are both equally expressed in
heterozygotes.
- This means the proteins the genes codes
for are BOTH made.
→ common in coat colours of animals, petal
colour in flowers, and in human blood types

Since both alleles are equally dominant, we do

not use different letters.

Ex: In cows, brown coat colour would be

represented by CB while white coat colour
would be represented by CW
Codominance Example

Flower colour is determined by two

codominant alleles.

A true-breeding red flower is crossed

with a true-breeding white flower.

Determine the phenotype ratios in F1

and F2.
Codominance Steps
Step 1: Let Statement

Let PR represent Red petals, let PW represent white petals

Step 2: Parental Genotypes

P R P R x P WP W

Step 3: Determine alleles and create punnett Square

Step 4: Add alleles to punnett square and determine potential
combinations for offspring in F1 Generation

F1 R

W P WP R

Step 5: Determine Ratios

Phenotypic Ratio = 100% Red and white coloured petals

Genotypic Ratio = 100% PWPR
 F2 PR PW
Part 2: F2 Generation
PR P RP R P RP W
Step 1: Parental Genotypes
PW P RP W PW PW
P RP W x P RP W

Step 2: Add alleles to punnett Square and determine

potential combinations for offspring in F2 Generation

Step 3: Determine Ratios

Phenotypic Ratio = 1 red : 2 red + white : 1 white
Genotypic Ratio = 1 P RP R : 2 P RP W : P W P W
Incomplete and Codominance summary
Codominance and Blood Type Inheritance
Human blood types have multiple methods of allele
inheritance…..

- Each blood type is determined by the presence of

various proteins located on the outside of each red blood
cell (RBC)

What types of blood do we have?

- Type A
- Type B
- Type AB
- Type O
So how does it work?

- There are dominant and recessive alleles

- There are also codominant alleles
- Multiple alleles (meaning there are more than 2
alleles involved

The three alleles involved with blood types are →

IA
IB
i
The proteins on the outside of the RBC membranes are called antigens

→ Antigen = antibody generator

- Circulating in the blood, many people (depending on their blood type) also have
antibodies against other antigens.
- When someone donates blood, the plasma (liquid) and RBC’s are donated, but the
antibodies are NOT (they are screened out).
- Antibodies are part of our immune system, they fit like a lock and key onto foreign
antigens and if this happens, an agglutination reaction occurs which causes clumps in
blood, and can cause death.
Rh factor (+ or -):

called Rh because it was first

discovered in Rhesus monkeys

This is determined by another

set of antigens outside of the
RBC membrane.

If the antigen is present you are

Rh + and if it is absent, you are
Rh -
Human Blood Types
Sex-linked Inheritance
Some traits are “linked to” one of the These genes are not
sex chromosomes. present on the Y
chromosome.
Almost always, it is the X chromosome
as it is much larger than the Y.

In females, the sex chromosomes are a

homologous pair (XX).
In males, they are not a homologous
pair (XY).

Ex: The genes for muscle development,

colour vision, blood clotting etc.. are
called sex genes because they are
located on the sex chromosome (X)
When designating alleles for sex linked traits, you must also show the sex
chromosomes (X or Y).

Ex: Colour blindness is a sex linked recessive trait. When establishing alleles, we
would write….
Let XC represent normal colour vision
Let Xc represent colour blindness

With sex linked traits, it is possible that

a female can be a carrier of a trait, but
not express it. Ex: XC Xc

Since it is X-linked, males cannot be

carriers, either express or do not.
Sex- linked Example

Hemophilia is a blood clotting disorder caused by a sex linked recessive allele.

- Father has normal blood clotting, mother has normal blood clotting.
- The mother’s father had hemophilia.
- What are the chances this couple has a child who has hemophilia?
Solving a Sex-linked problem
Step 1: Let Statement

Let XB Represent normal blood clotting, let Xb represent hemophilia

Step 2: Parental Genotypes…

XBXb x XBY → We know this is the case because the mothers father
has to pass down the affected X chromosome.

Step 3: Determine alleles and create punnett Square

Step 4: Add alleles to punnett XB Xb
Square and determine potential
XB X BX B X BX b
combinations for offspring in F2
Generation Y X BY X bY

Step 5: Determine Ratios and solve question

Phenotypic Ratio = 3 normal blood clotting: 1 with hemophilia

so … 1 in 4 or 25% chance that they have a child who has hemophilia

(or O% they have a daughter with hemophilia…. 50% their son will
have hemophilia)
Sex-linked inherticance
Using Pedigrees
Pedigree Vocab
Pedigree:

- chart showing relationships between people in a family

Carrier:

- someone who has one recessive gene; heterozygous

individual

Generation:

- everyone on one level of a pedigree; all of the children or all

of the grandchildren as an example.

Sibling:

- brother or sister
Interpreting a Pedigree

Half coloured in means that the

individual is a carrier for the
condition
 A straight line that connects two individuals means that they
had a child

A line that connects two people at the top means that they are siblings
 Each level represents a generation. The first level are the oldest people,
and the bottom level are the youngest.

Generations are labeled with

Roman numerals, and each person
in a generation is labeled with a
number.

So each person has their own number. For example, this person is III - 2
Hemophelia is a sex linked recessive
disorder.

What are the genotypes of both

parents in the first generation?

What can you determine about the

individual II - 2?
SYSTEMS UNIT
Unit 3: Human Body Systems
Unit Plan: Human Body Systems

● Internal systems of humans and

animals
● Investigate relationship between
structure and function of systems
● All systems work cohesively to
keep us alive.
● Disorders, diagnostic tools,
treatments.

→ What are you interested in

learning more about?
The Digestive
System
(Part 1)
The Digestive System
What is the key function of the digestive system?

■ converting food substances to a state in which the

nutrients from food can be absorbed out of the digestive
system and into the circulatory system.

■ Food we eat contains macronutrients (protein,

carbohydrates, lipids) and micronutrients (vitamins,
minerals) as well as water.
Macromolecules
Key processes involved:

■ 1. Ingestion

■ 2. Digestion

■ 3. Absorption

■ 4. Egestion/Elimination
Where does each
process occur?

Refer to the
numbers on the
diagram.
Alimentary
Canal

Pathway in
which food
passes through
inside the
human body
1. Ingestion
■ The physical act of
eating; for humans, this
begins with our mouth.
2. Digestion – Two Types:
1. Mechanical Digestion

2. Chemical Digestion
Mechanical Digestion
Changes the physical form of food by…

■ Chewing
■ Tearing
■ Grinding
■ Mashing
■ Mixing

Where does mechanical digestion occur within the body?

→The mouth

→ The stomach
Chemical Digestion
→ Changes the chemical composition of food with the
aid of digestive enzymes

Digestive enzymes are special proteins that help break

up large molecules of food into very tiny molecules that
can be absorbed and used by the cells in the form of
nutrients.
Enzymes
Accomplish the chemical
breakdown of complex biological
molecules into their component
parts.
■ Lipids to fatty acids
■ Proteins to individual amino
acids
■ Carbohydrates into simple
sugars
■ The name often end in “-ase”
■ The name often gives a clue as
to what type of molecule is
being digested by the enzyme

Ex:
→ protease digests protein
→ lipase digests lipids
Chemical Digestion occurs in

■ Mouth
■ Stomach
■ Small intestine

→ (in the first section – the duodenum)

3. Absorption
■ The end-products of digestion are absorbed (these go on
to have specific uses within the body)

■ Amino acids (from proteins) are absorbed

■ Monosaccharides ex. glucose (from carbohydrates) are

absorbed

■ Fatty acids (from lipids/fats) are absorbed

Occurs in
■ The end products from
digestion are absorbed
in the small intestine
(jejunum and ileum)

■ Structures called villi

and microvilli absorb
nutrients
4. Egestion

■ elimination of
unabsorbed
waste materials.
The Digestive
System (Part 2)

Pathway through
the digestive System
Alimentary
Canal

Pathway in which
food passes
through inside the
human body.
1. The Mouth

a) physical digestion

■ teeth – cutting, tearing, grinding

food
■ tongue - moves food around

b) chemical digestion
- Saliva is secreted by three different salivary glands (parotid,
submandibular, sublingual) and works to moisten food.
- The salivary glands are accessory organs.
- The Saliva contains the enzyme amylase which begins to break
down starch (polysaccharide) into simple sugars like glucose.

→ The partially digested

Food that is swallowed is
called a bolus
2. The Esophagus
● The esophagus is a
muscular tube that
connects the mouth to the
stomach.

● To prevent food from

entering your trachea
(windpipe) when you
swallow, the opening to
the trachea is closed by a
valve called the epiglottis.
● The esophagus transports
the bolus to the stomach
through a series of wavelike
muscular contractions. This
is called peristalsis.

● The cardiac (esophageal)

sphincter (a ring of muscle)
opens to allow food to enter
the stomach.

● It (usually) closes to prevent

acidic chyme from travelling
back up the esophagus.
3. Stomach
Physical and
chemical digestion
take place inside the
stomach.
Mixing waves Peristaltic waves
Physical:

Muscular walls of the

stomach churn and
waves mix food
Chemical digestion inside the stomach

■ 2 L of gastric fluids
are secreted by lining
per day

■ HCl breaks down

fibrous tissue and
kills bacteria

■ mucus protects
lining from acidity
■ pepsin (enzyme)
begins digesting
protein into amino
acids

■ the partially digested

food that leaves through
the pyloric sphincter
is called chyme
4. Small Intestine
Has three parts:

1. Duodenum – upper part, “C” shaped; about 20 cm;

connected to the stomach
- digestion occurs in duodenum

2. Jejunum – about 2.5m

3. Ileum – about 3.5m

- Absorption occurs in the jejunum and ileum
The Small Intestine
The Duodenum ■ Receives digestive
juices from the
pancreas that contain
a cocktail of enzymes to
break down
carbohydrates, fats and
protein

■ Receives an alkaline
solution from the
pancreas to neutralize
the acidic chyme from
the stomach
■ Receives bile from the
gallbladder which
emulsifies fats (dissolves
fat into the watery
contents of the intestine)

■ bile is produced by the

liver and stored in the
gallbladder

■ Bile is an emulsifier
NOT an enzyme
The Jejunum and Ileum
The Jejunum and Ileum
■ Has folded inner walls covered with fingerlike projections
called villi (villi - plural; villus - singular)

■ Each villus has tinier projections called microvilli that

absorb digested food.

■ Villi and microvilli increase the surface area of the small

intestine for greater absorption.

■ Peristalsis moves the undigested food to the large

intestine.
Villi and Microvilli
Villus Structure
Each villus is a small, finger-like projection which consists of
a lacteal surrounded by capillaries.

- The ‘covering’ of each villus is a single layer of cells

(epithelial cells)
- The Lacteal is part of the Lymphatic system; its role is to
absorb Lipids
- The capillaries are part of the circulatory system; their role is
to absorb amino acids and glucose
Check your work

Label the
indicated
structures.

What is
absorbed by
#2 and #4?
Answers
- click this link for a
great view of a villus
and absorption
Nutrient Absorption
Glucose and amino acids are absorbed
directly into capillaries

Fatty acids are first absorbed into the

lacteal (lymphatic system) and then they
enter into the circulatory system
5. The Large
Intestine
4. Large Intestine (Colon)
■ a.k.a. The Colon
■ larger diameter, but shorter (1.5m), surrounded by blood
vessels

Water is absorbed from the undigested food making the

waste more compacted until it becomes solid.
■ Waste stays for 10 – 12 hours

Subdivided into 3 sections by direction:

Ascending (up); transverse (across); descending (down)
- We use about 9 litres of Re-absorption of water
water every day in
within the body:
digestive juices.
- >90% of this water is
reabsorbed back to body

What happens if not enough

water or too much water is
absorbed in the body?

- Diarrhea
- Constipation
Bacteria live within our large intestine and
produce vitamins K and B which are
absorbed by human body.

■ the rectum is the end of the colon and

it stores feces (mixture of undigested
and unabsorbed material, water, dead
bacteria)

■ waste is expelled through anus

Accessory Organs
These are organs that “feed into” the main tube of the
digestive system
→ Food doesn’t pass directly through them (unlike the
alimentary canal) but they play key roles in our digestive
process

Each stores and/or produces secretions used for digestion

■ Salivary glands
■ Liver
■ Gallbladder
■ Pancreas
Salivary Glands
■ 3 sets of salivary glands produce and
secrete salivary amylase into the mouth
■ Amylase begins the breakdown of
starch into glucose
Liver
■ Accessory Organ
■ Largest internal organ; has hundreds of functions
■ Makes bile, which is stored in gallbladder
■ Processes nutrients which are sent from ileum and
jejunum via blood vessels
Gallbladder

■ Stores the bile produced by the liver

■ Secretes bile into the duodenum
Pancreas
■ Produces and secretes an alkaline (basic) solution.
■ Why? HCl makes chyme acidic acid + base 🡪 salt + water

Produces and secretes a cocktail of many enzymes which can digest

all types of macromolecules

■Lipases digest lipids

■Proteases digest proteins
■Carbohydrases digest carbohydrates
The Human Digestive System
The Human Digestive System

Classwork:

- Complete the digital digestive

system worksheet posted to Hapara
- Once you are finished you and a
partner can move on to the
digestive system modeling activity
Activity: Modelling the Human
Digestive System

- walk through the digestive process making

a model digestive system using set of cards
and identify all key structures and parts of
the digestive processes along the way.

- Use items available to you to build your

model digestive system. String, balloons,
pipe cleaners, construction paper, tape,
etc.…
Activity: Modelling the Human
Digestive System

- Use the atom building kits to represent

each macromolecule being broken down
into their structural subunits through the
digestive process.

- Please let me know when you have

completed your model

Extension: Create a screencast, video or

infographic explaining what is happening at
each step
Watch this 5
minute
video on the
Digestive System
The Circulatory
System:

Blood &
Blood Vessels
Types of circulatory systems
What different types of circulatory systems can you think of?

Ex:
- Grasshoppers
- Worms
- Fish
- Frogs
- Humans
Open vs. Closed Circulatory Systems
Examples of Closed Circulatory Systems
Note: We are going to focus on mammalian circulatory systems
(mammals have closed circulatory systems)
Functions of the Circulatory System
→Transport substances that are needed TO all cells
• Examples: oxygen; nutrients such as glucose, amino acids;
hormones such as insulin

→Transport waste substances that must be removed FROM all cells

• Examples: carbon dioxide, lactic acid

→Regulation of body temperature

→Protection from infection and loss of blood

Types of Circulation
There are 3 types of circulation found in mammals:
1) Cardiac (coronary) circulation—circulation of blood
in the blood vessels of the heart itself

2) Systemic circulation—from heart to body and back

to the heart

3) Pulmonary circulation—from the heart to the lungs

and back to the heart
Cardiac (Coronary) Circulation
Components of Mammalian Circulatory Systems
There are 3 key components of all mammalian circulatory
systems:

1. Fluid
Blood

2. Blood vessels
Arteries, veins, capillaries

3. A pump
The heart
1. Blood

What’s in blood?

Comprised of….

● Plasma
● White blood cells and
platelets
● Red blood cells
Plasma

• the liquid portion of blood; 90%

water

• contains dissolved/suspended gases,

proteins (albumins, globulins,
fibrinogens), nutrients, ions, waste
products, etc.

• serum is the fluid component

Where do blood cells come from?
The birthplace of blood cells is
the red bone marrow.

The tissue within the ends of

the bone that replaces and
produces the red blood cells
and is also the manufacturing
site of white blood cells).
Types of Blood Cells
→red blood cells
(erythrocytes)

→ white blood cells

(leukocytes)

→ Platelets
(thrombocytes)
Red Blood Cells (RBC’s)
Erythrocytes

• biconcave discs
• to create as much space as possible for
hemoglobin, the cell nucleus disappears
as the cell matures
• carry oxygen & carbon dioxide
• always travel in the same direction as
blood is flowing
• hemoglobin is the protein that carries
the gases
Hemoglobin
• a protein which contains 4 heme
(iron) groups

• gives red blood cells their special

oxygen carrying proficiency as well
as their colour.

• water and plasma can also carry

oxygen, but hemoglobin is unique in
its oxygen carrying capacity because
it increases by more than 50 times
the quantity of oxygen it can carry.
White Blood Cells (WBC’s)
AKA Leukocytes

→ several different kinds of WBC’s

• lymphocytes
• Neutrophils (video)
• basophils
• monocytes

→ contain a nucleus; larger than RBC’s

→ develop in bone marrow; replacement of

WBC’s can occur in the lymph nodes, the
intestinal tract and in the spleen
White Blood Cells (WBC’s)
→ can travel with or against the direction of blood
flow and can leave blood vessels for tissues

→ part of the immune system

produce antibodies
destroy pathogens
respond to tissue damage and help with its
repair
The Immune System
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
• not complete cells; these are small cell fragments

• essential in blood clotting (change of blood from a fluid to a solid is

called clotting)

• activate some of the first

biochemical processes
needed to clot blood

• always travel in the same

direction as blood is flowing
2. Blood Vessels
• Blood vessels are part of a closed extensive
network of narrow elastic passageways whose
main function is to circulate blood to and from
all the cells in the body

• In a closed system blood would go along this

route:

heart > arteries > arterioles > capillaries > venules > veins

…. and then back to heart.

Blood
Vessels
Arteries
• always carry blood Away from the heart
• carry blood under high pressure created by the heart
contracting

• therefore have thick muscular, elastic walls

• narrow lumen (space)

• usually carry blood high in oxygen. Exception?

• the aorta is the largest artery in the body and the

primary vessel carrying oxygenated blood out of the
heart to the rest of the body.
Arterioles
• smallest arteries

• smooth muscles in arterioles can

cause vasoconstriction (caused by
cold stress) or vasodilation
(caused by heat stress)

• diverts blood flow toward areas of

need/away from areas that aren’t
needed as much, ex. during
exercise, cold temperatures, etc.
Capillaries
• smallest blood vessels
• form a network that allows blood and cells to
exchange substances
• site of gas, nutrient, waste exchange
• capillaries are very narrow (10 um diameter, the red
blood cells that travel through capillaries are 6 um
in diameter).
• capillaries are made of thin endothelial cells (one
layer thick); the cells fit loosely, and nutrients go
through pores between the cells
Exchange of materials at capillaries

The cells in your body need a constant supply of oxygen

and nutrients, and they need to get rid of the carbon
dioxide and other waste molecules that they produce.

• capillary beds connect arterioles and venules

• capillaries have thin permeable walls (one cell
thick)
• no body cell is further than 2 cells away from a capillary
Why it is useful for the wall of a capillary to
consist of a single layer of thin, flattened
cells?

Diffusion of oxygen and nutrients into cells

and carbon dioxide and wastes out of cells
occurs at capillaries.

- Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the

blood in the capillary to nearby cells
- Carbon dioxide and other waste
molecules diffuse from nearby cells
into the blood.
Blood flow in capillaries
• Blood flow in arteries is like
being on a highway

• Blood flow in capillaries must

be SLOW, (like this walk-on,
walk-off cabriolet)

• This allows nutrients and

wastes enough time to diffuse
across membranes
Venules & Veins
• venules are the smallest veins that
collect blood from the capillaries; they
join to form veins

• carry blood toward the heart

• wide lumen (interior space)

Venules & Veins
• blood is under lower pressure than in arteries;
therefore, smooth muscle layer not as thick as in
artery and not as elastic.

• valves to prevent backflow of blood.

• usually carry blood low in oxygen. Exception?
Function of
venous valves
Blood Pressure, Velocity, and Total Area in Different Blood Vessels

→ Examine the diagram to the

right

For each of arteries, capillaries,

and veins, write down what
you notice regarding:

blood pressure?
velocity?
total area?
 Blood vessel
characteristics
Blood Vessels Under a Microscope
Various Sizes
of Transport
Vessels
The Heart
Part 1: Heart
Anatomy & Blood
Flow

Part 2: Electrical
Activity & Heart Beat

Part 3: Blood Pressure

Part 1: Heart Anatomy and Blood Flow
● the heart is a muscle that supplies the pressure to
move the blood through the blood vessels

• made of cardiac muscle tissue

• this tissue needs a constant supply of oxygen and

glucose.

• covered with a sac of epithelial and fibrous tissue

called the pericardium that contains liquid which
reduces friction as the heart beats

→ Try to label your heart diagram

External
Heart
Anatomy
Internal Heart Anatomy
1. the heart consists of two
pumps, separated by a
muscular wall called the
septum that prevents the
mixing of blood from the
two sides

2. Both sides of the heart each

have two chambers: the
atrium (on top), and the
ventricle (on the bottom)
3. an atrioventricular (A/V)
valve (bicuspid or tricuspid)
controls the flow of blood
between the atrium and the
ventricle

4. the pulmonary
(semi-lunar) valve and the
aortic (semi-lunar) valves
prevent backflow from the
arteries leaving the heart
5. The veins (vena cava
or pulmonary veins)
bring blood to the heart

6. The arteries (aorta or

pulmonary arteries) take
blood away from the
heart
The Double Pump
The separation of oxygenated vs. deoxygenated blood was made possible due to
the evolution of a double pump system.
Each capillary bed (one in the lungs and one for the rest of the body) has a
separate pump and separate circuit of blood flow.

The heart consists of a double pump where blood is pumped through two times
- Pulmonary circuit
- Systemic circuit
The Double Pump
→ The pulmonary circuit – the right
atrium/ventricle combination pumps blood to
the lungs and back to the heart

→ The systemic circuit – the left

atrium/ventricle pumps blood to all the
body’s cells and back

• In the double system, deoxygenated and

oxygenated blood take separate routes
through the heart (unlike some other
systems like those of amphibians)
The Direction
of Blood Flow
The Pulmonary Circuit
The system of blood vessels
that carries

→ deoxygenated blood to
the lungs and

→ oxygenated blood back

to the heart.

The deoxygenated blood arrives from body via …

vena cavae > right atrium > right ventricle > pulmonary arteries > lungs (capillaries
surrounding alveoli) >
now oxygenated blood back to heart via pulmonary veins > left atrium
Pulmonary Circuit Diagram
The Systemic Circuit
The system of blood vessels that carries
oxygenated blood to the tissues of the
body and deoxygenated blood back to
the heart.
The oxygenated blood arrives from the
lungs via the….

pulmonary veins to the left atrium > left

ventricle > aorta > arteries > arterioles >
capillaries in the body (gas exchange)

now deoxygenated blood back to heart

via venules > veins > vena cavae
Systemic Circuit Diagram

Copyright © 2002 by Nelson Thomson Learning, a division of Thomson Canada Ltd.

Heart Model Activity
Answer Objective #1 – Trace the path of a drop of blood through the human heart,
1 Superior and inferior
Vena Cava
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. Lungs
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. Body
15.
Heart Model Activity - Answers 1. Superior and inferior Vena Cava
2. Right Atrium
3. Tricuspid Valve
4. Right Ventricle
5. Pulmonary Valve
6. Pulmonary Artery
7. Lungs
8. Pulmonary Vein
9. Left Atrium
10. Bicuspid Valve
11. Left Ventricle
12. Aortic Valve
13. Aorta
14. Body
15. Veins
Blood Flow
Source: [Link]
Part 2: Electrical Activity & Heart Beats
Why does your heart beat?
Your heart beat is due to electrical activity in heart tissue which causes the heart
chambers to contract in a specific sequence

The heart is made of specialized cardiac muscle that is incredibly resistant to

fatigue.

Your heart beats anywhere from 60 – 100

times per minute while at rest (on
average for a teenager). Each time it
does, a complex series of events occurs
known as the cardiac cycle occurs.

Your heart must contract 2-3 billion times

during your lifetime.
The heart is myogenic, that is, it
initiates its own impulses and
contractions, and does not need the
brain to do it.

→ The cardiac electrical signal

controls:

• the number of electrical

impulses (heart rate)

• It triggers the heart muscle to

contract in the correct sequence
as it spreads across the heart
Regulation of the Heart Beat
1. The sinoatrial (SA) node or the
pacemaker is a group of nerve
fibers in the right atrium that
maintain the beating of the
heart.

2. the SA node sends numerous,

regular electric signals that cause the
atria to contract from the top and
force blood through the
atrioventricular (A/V) valves
3. The signal also reaches the
atrioventricular (AV) node which
reacts by sending a signal down
the Bundle of His to the bottom
of the ventricles.

4. The Purkinje fibres in the

ventricle transmit this signal to
start the ventricles contracting
from the bottom and this forces 3
blood out the aorta or
pulmonary arteries

4
 The Heart’s Tempo
SA node stimulates muscle
fibres to contract & relax
rhythmically

Electrical impulse spreads

over 2 atria & makes them
contract simultaneously

Impulse reaches AV node

which transmits it to the
ventricles to start their
contraction
One heartbeat = one cardiac cycle

Each cardiac cycle consists of a systole (a contraction of the heart muscle)

and a diastole (a relaxation of the heart muscle)
Electrocardiograph (ECG)

The change in voltage

produced by these electrical
signals can be measured
using an electrocardiogram,
or ECG.

Taken by placing electrodes

on the skin over the heart

Measures electrical charges

in heart muscle over time.
P → Contraction of Atria (Atrial
depolarization)

Q-S → Contraction of Ventricles

(Ventricular Depolarization)

T → Ventricle relaxes from

contraction (precedes the next firing)
(ventricular repolarization)
Heart Sounds “Lub-Dub”
The two sounds of a beating heart are made by the closing
atrioventricular (A/V) and semilunar valves and correspond
to the two phases of the heart cycle: systole and diastole.

Systole is the contraction of the atria, during which the

ventricles fill with blood, followed by contraction of the
ventricles, which pushes blood out past the aortic valve to
the arteries.

To prevent back-flow to the atrium, the atrioventricular

(A/V) valve closes, making a sharp sound.

→ This is the “lub” sound.

Heart Sounds “Lub-Dub”
Systolic contraction is followed by relaxation of
the heart, diastole.

Relaxation of the ventricles results in loss of

pressure in the heart and closure of the aortic
valve (this is the ‘dub’ sound) by the pressure in
the aorta.
Regulation of Heart Rate
Although the heart initiates its own beat, the heartbeat can be modified
according to need/environment. What controls our heart rate?
1. Nervous system

The nervous system can accelerate the heartbeat (via

the sympathetic nerves) or slow down the beat (via the
vagus nerve).

2. Hormonal system
The heart is also under hormonal control.
→the hormone adrenaline accelerates the heart beat.
→ acetylcholine (Ach) slows it down.
 right side

low O2 blood enters the right atrium from the superior

or inferior vena cava
the full atrium triggers the SA node which causes both
the atria to contract
blood is forced through the bicuspid valve into the
ventricle
the ventricle fills and the electrical signal triggers the AV
node to send a signal down the Bundle of His
The Purkinje Fibres distribute the signal and the
ventricle contracts
Blood is forced past the pulmonary semi-lunar valve
and into the pulmonary artery
 left side

high O2 blood enters the left atrium from the pulmonary

vein
the full atrium triggers the SA node which causes both
the atria to contract
blood is forced through the tricuspid valve into the
ventricle
the ventricle fills and the electrical signal triggers the AV
node to send a signal down the Bundle of His
The Purkinje Fibres distribute the signal and the
ventricle contracts
Blood is forced past the aortic semi-lunar valve and into
the aorta
Heart Sounds and Heart Rate Activity (Stethoscopes)
• Number of heart beats per unit time
• Expressed as beats per minute (bpm)
• Changes during rest, activity, exercise

Detected by taking pulse:

• Radial artery (wrist)
• Carotid artery (neck)

What is your pulse?

• Average healthy adult – 60-80 bpm at rest
• Elite athlete – 32 bpm at rest
Part 3: Blood Pressure
The pressure of the blood on the walls of the arteries It’s measured in two
numbers.

• The first, systolic pressure (top number), measures the pressure of the
blood against the artery walls as the heart contracts.

• The second, diastolic pressure (bottom number), measures the pressure

against the artery walls when the heart relaxes between beats.

→ Normal blood pressure is _____120 (systolic)_____

80 (diastolic) mm Hg
Measuring Blood Pressure
Blood pressure refers to the force of
the blood on the walls of the arteries
Measured using a
sphygmomanometer →

• Cuff with air pocket is wrapped

around arm
• Air pocket is inflated
• Cuts off blood flow to the
arteries in the arm
• Stethoscope listens to blood
entering the arm as the air is
gradually released
The pressure that you
first hear the sound is Blood
called the systolic Pressure
blood pressure
Sphygmomanometer mm
Hg
The cuff is deflated
until you can’t hear
the sound anymore,
at this pressure it is
diastolic pressure Brachial
Artery
Normal
120/80 mm
Hg
1. Cardiac output
2. Arteriolar
Resistance
Measuring Blood Pressure
Key Terminology of the Heartbeat

Heart rate and stroke volume affect the cardiac output

Cardiac output:
- Is a measure of the volume of blood pumped from each ventricle per unit
time
- Can also be a measure of the level of O delivery to body
2

Stroke volume:
- amount of blood forced out of heart with each heartbeat
Two Factors Affect Stroke Volume:

1. How Easily the 2. How easily heart

heart fills with empties (strength of
blood ventricular
(distensibility or contractions)
stretchiness of the
ventricles

What other factors can affect the health of your heart?

Factors that Affect the Heart’s Health

High cholesterol

Smoking

Diabetes mellitus

High blood pressure

Lack of regular exercise

Rapid weight loss/gain

Genetic factors
Your Heart and Exercise

Cardiorespiratory
exercise enlarges the
ventricles, increases
“stretchiness” of
ventricles, as well as
strengthens the
ventricle walls.
Cardiovascular Diseases
There are many medical conditions which may affect the heart…

→ Heart Attack, Stroke, Atherosclerosis, Heart Arrhythmia, etc..

Pick one of the above and do some research about

- Causes of the condition

- Symptoms (short term, long term)
- Treatment options

•
Heart attack (myocardial infarction):
• is caused by heart ischemia (lack of O2) usually caused by obstruction by a
blood clot.

Stroke (cerebral infarction):

• clot in the brain or rupture of a weak blood vessel.

Atherosclerosis:
• thickening of artery walls, which narrows the arterial lumen, is the leading
cause of death.

Treatments:
- Using a Defibrillator
- Angioplasty
- Coronary bypass
- TPA
ELECTRICITY AND THE HEART:

WHY DO YOU SHOCK A PERSON TO GET THEIR HEART

BEATING AGAIN?

The heart generates its own electrical impulse

The cardiac electrical signal controls:

the number of electrical impulses (heart rate)
It triggers the heart muscle to contract in the correct
sequence as it spreads across the heart
Stroke and Heart Attack
Spinach is good for the Heart?
PART 1: The Function of Respiratory Systems

What is the basic Function of the

Respiratory System?

→ To ensure that oxygen can enter

and carbon dioxide can leave.
Respiratory Systems in Nature
Different groups of organisms have developed different types of
respiratory systems to meet their specific needs.

How would each of the following get O2 and remove CO2? Any
differences between the systems?
- Earthworm
- Grasshopper
- Ant
- Salamander
- Hammerhead shark
- Bullfrog
- Whale
- Tiger
→ The larger an organism is, the more oxygen it requires to supply its cells,
and the greater the distance over which oxygen must travel.

→ Since diffusion of O2 is effective over short distances, then an organism

with a body more than a few cells thick must use another mechanism to bring
O2 to the cells

How do larger organisms meet their complex needs for gas exchange?

Solution:
1. A respiratory surface;
2. A passageway to connect this surface to the external environment;
3. Muscular structures that help bring the respiratory medium into contact with
the respiratory surface
Respiratory Surfaces
All respiratory surfaces share these characteristics:

1. Thin, so diffusion can occur

2. Large surface area, so rapid diffusion can occur
3. Moist, so gases can dissolve
4. Well supplied with blood capillaries, so gases can be
transported to the rest of the body
The Human Respiratory System:
Structure and Functions
The Human Respiratory System

Time Trial….. Use the link in the workspace to label the respiratory system against
the clock.
A) Anatomy of the Respiratory Tract
● Lungs are fragile, and must be protected
to prevent against water loss and
damage.

● Lungs are located in the thoracic cavity,

deep within the body.

● A passageway is necessary to allow air

to move from the external environment to
the respiratory surface.
1. Upper Respiratory Tract
● Airenters through the nostrils, moving
into hollow nasal passages.

● Thinbones called turbinates hang from

the nasal cavity and are covered with a
thin membrane that secretes mucus,
which moistens the incoming air.

● Thenasal chambers are lined with tiny

capillaries, which warm incoming air.

→ Check this link for some info, 3D views,

and video clips of the upper respiratory
tract
● Air
passes through the pharynx, the
glottis, and the larynx.

Pharynx - connects mouth and

nasal cavity to the esophagus.

Glottis - opening of the trachea;

conducts air into the lungs.

The epiglottis is like a trapdoor that

closes over the trachea and prevents
food from entering when food is
swallowed

Larynx, aka "voice box"; houses

vocal cords.
● Air descends the trachea (aka “windpipe”).

● Thetrachea is supported by rings of cartilage, which

prevent it from collapsing

● Therings of cartilage are "C" shaped to

accommodate a bolus of food in the esophagus

● Check out this link for some info, 3D views, and video
clips of the trachea and its anatomical relationship with
the esophagus
The upper respiratory tract
is lined with ciliated cells

→ to trap foreign particles

and propel the material to
the back of the nose/throat,
where it can be expelled by
sneezing/coughing.
2. Lower Respiratory Tract
● Atthe level of the armpit, the trachea
branches into two smaller
passageways called bronchi
(singular: bronchus).

→ One bronchus enters each lung.

● Once in the lung, each bronchus

subdivides many times to produce a
network of narrow tubes called
bronchioles.

● Bronchi and bronchioles are lined with

ciliated cells.
● Each bronchiole ends in a grape-like
cluster of tiny sacs called alveoli
(singular: alveolus).

● Alveoli are the site of gas exchange,

therefore must be kept moist to allow
diffusion to occur
Alveoli
A ‘cut away’ view
Deoxygenated Oxygenated
blood blood
Each lung is divided into lobes.
● Right lung - 3 lobes
● Left
lung - 2 lobes (to
accommodate the heart).

● Lobesare made of lobules,

each with its own bronchiole.

● Lungs are surrounded by

tissue called pleura
(singular: pleuron)

● Pleura
allow lungs to expand
and contract during breathing.
Internal Structure of Lungs
Upper and Lower Respiratory Tracts
Monitoring the Respiratory System
How does our body’s need for O2 change over
time?

How can we monitor our respiratory system?

How does a spirometer work?

What are some common disorders of the

respiratory system?
Disorders of the Respiratory System
In your groups…

→ What is it? How does it affect the R.S., Treatment

- Asthma
- Emphysema
- Bronchitis
- Cystic Fibrosis
- COPD
- Pneumonia
Asthma
Respiratory Volume
As the body’s O2
needs increase, the
volume of air drawn
into the lungs also
increases.
Respiratory Volume
Tidal Volume - volume of air inhaled and exhaled during normal breathing.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume - (aka. Forced Inspiration), maximum volume

of additional air (complemental air) which can be inhaled on top of tidal air.

Expiratory Reserve Volume (aka. Forced Expiration), maximum volume

of additional air which can be exhaled on top of tidal air.

Vital Capacity - The sum of these 3 quantities: Tidal Air + Forced

Inspiration + Forced Expiration.

Residual Volume - (aka. alveolar air), is the amount of air that remains in
the lungs and cannot be exhaled (about 1/4 of our air)
The Effects of Smoking on Lungs
This video (3:48) has
info on why cigarettes
are so damaging.
The Respiratory System:
Gas Exchange & Transport
Events of Respiration
The following events make up the process of Respiration
in humans. Each step plays an important role in getting O2
into the body and CO2 out.

1. Breathing (also called ventilation)

2. External Respiration
3. Gas Transport by Blood
4. Internal Respiration
5. Cellular Respiration
1. Breathing
The Mechanics of Breathing:
What actually
happens when
we breathe in
and out?
 Intercostal Muscles

Diaphragm
Inhalation
External intercostal muscles(IC) contract and expand the rib cage.

The diaphragm contracts and pulls the thoracic cavity downwards.

Since the thoracic cavity is airtight, an increase in its volume results in a decrease
in air pressure within the cavity.

Boyle’s Law:
Pressure and volume are inversely proportional to one another….

→ when one increases, the other decreases.

Air then moves along the pressure gradient, into the lungs.
Inhalation
Exhalation

● Internal intercostal muscles relax and return the rib cage to its original
position

● Diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards, decreasing the volume in

the thoracic cavity.

● These changes create higher pressure in the thoracic cavity, forcing

air along the pressure gradient, and out of the body.
Exhalation
2. External Respiration
Gas Exchange in Lungs (external respiration)
External respiration:

Blood here is part of pulmonary

circulation

Both oxygen and carbon dioxide

move by DIFFUSION, which is a
type of passive transport due to
differences in concentration.

Molecules ALWAYS diffuse from

areas of
high concentration →
areas of low concentration
Gas Exchange at the Lungs
O2 moves from the alveoli → capillaries

● gas exchange occurs across the alveolar membrane

CO2 moves from the capillaries → alveoli

● the alveoli membranes are only a single cell thick.

● the capillaries are also only a single cell thick
● For inhaled O2 to enter the bloodstream, it must first
dissolve in the fluid lining of each alveolus
Alveoli
A ‘cut away’ view
Deoxygenated Oxygenated
blood blood
Internal Structure of Lungs
● theconcentration of O2 in inhaled air is greater than the concentration
of O2 in the capillaries.
● In
contrast, the CO2 concentration is greater in the capillaries than in
the alveoli.
● therefore O2 diffuses from the alveoli into the bloodstream and CO2
diffuses from the capillaries, into the lungs
3. Transport of Gases in Blood
How do both Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide move throughout
the body?
How Blood Transports Respiratory Gases

Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are

transported via the bloodstream.

Transport of Oxygen:
● About 99% of the oxygen that reaches
the cells is carried by hemoglobin,
which is a pigment.

● The remaining 1% is dissolved in blood

plasma.
- Red blood cells contain
hemoglobin

- Hemoglobin Contains 4
atoms of iron and each
atom binds to a molecule
of O2
Hemoglobin:

- Gives red blood cells their special

O2 carrying proficiency as well as
their colour.

- Water and plasma also carry O2 but

hemoglobin is unique in its oxygen
carrying capacity because it
increases by more than 50x the
quantity of O2 it can carry.

- The bond between hemoglobin and

O2 is weak.
This ensures that when the red blood cells reach body cells which need
oxygen, the oxygen can be released. Imagine it's like oxygen and
hemoglobin are holding hands ... they can let go when they need to.

If the bond was like crazy glue, then the oxygen couldn't be released and
couldn't enter the cells which need it.
 Hemoglobin forms this kind of bond with
carbon monoxide (CO), which is why
carbon monoxide is so deadly.
Hemoglobin forms
this kind of bond All of the hemoglobin ends up binding to
with oxygen CO, leaving no hemoglobin available to
bind to oxygen.

Cells don’t receive O2, meaning no

cellular respiration can happen. Without
any energy produced, cells die.
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
● When CO2 leaves body cells and diffuses
into the capillaries, it enters the blood.

● About 10% of CO2 dissolves in the plasma

● Most(about 70%) is transported in the

plasma as the bicarbonate ion, HCO3−, or
carbonic acid, H2CO3

CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3−

● The
remaining 20% binds directly to
hemoglobin.
4. Internal Respiration
ii. Gas Exchange at Tissues
The blood here is
part of systemic
circulation

● the concentration
of O2 is greater in
the capillaries
than it is in the
cells
● In contrast, the
CO2 concentration
is greater in the
cells than it is in
the capillaries
● Oxygen is constantly used up in the
mitochondria, since it's a reactant.

● Carbon dioxide is constantly forming,

since it's a product

O2 diffuses from the capillaries high

O2 concentration) into the cells (low O2
concentration) and CO2 diffuses from
the cells (high CO2 concentration) into
the capillaries (low CO2 concentration)
5. Cellular Respiration
The series of energy releasing chemical reactions
that take place within the cells.

Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria

(powerhouse of the cell)

Its purpose is to provide energy for cellular

activities.

Cellular respiration:

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water +

Energy
Why do we require oxygen?
Energy in Food

The food we eat contains energy.

The mitochondria is like the currency
exchange..
where oxygen and glucose are
exchanged for currency→ ATP
(energy)
Regulation of Breathing
We are able to consciously control when we breathe ex.
while swimming.

● Most of the time though, breathing is an involuntary

process that is controlled by a part of our hindbrain called
the medulla oblongata

● The role of the medulla oblongata is to cause the rib

muscles and diaphragm to contract and relax i.e. it
regulates ventilation/breathing

● The medulla oblongata senses levels of carbon dioxide,

not oxygen. When CO2 levels rise, the medulla oblongata
senses this and sends nerve impulses which stimulate the
diaphragm to inhalation and exhalation
The Relationship between the Respiratory & Circulatory Systems

● The respiratory system brings oxygen INTO our lungs; this

oxygen must be TRANSPORTED to all cells by the
circulatory system

● Cellular
respiration uses the oxygen to produce energy.
Carbon dioxide is a waste gas that must be
TRANSPORTED from all cells by the circulatory system,
and returned to the lungs to be exhaled by the respiratory
system

● Transport
of respiratory gases involves both the pulmonary
and systemic circuits
Circulatory & Respiratory Systems

How do these two

systems work
together?
 We will review what happens to:

i. capillaries surrounding alveoli in the lungs which have dropped off

carbon dioxide and received oxygen … this oxygen needs to be
transported back to the heart and then to all cells in the body

ii. capillaries surrounding cells in the body which have dropped off
oxygen and received carbon dioxide … this carbon dioxide needs to be
transported back to the heart and then to the lungs to be exhaled
Pulmonary Circulation
● Responsible for transporting deoxygenated blood TO
the lungs, from the right side of the heart
● Responsible for transporting oxygenated blood
FROM the lungs, to the left side of the heart
● pulmonary arteries will carry the CO2 from
the right ventricle toward the lungs

● the
pulmonary arteries lead into smaller
pulmonary arterioles

● these
become smaller and smaller,
eventually feeding into capillaries

● thesecapillaries surround the alveoli; here

the CO2 will diffuse into the alveoli and be
exhaled.
Oxygenated capillaries in the lungs (pulmonary
circuit)
● the
capillaries which receive O2 from the alveoli
must lead back to the heart

● thesecapillaries feed into pulmonary venules,

which then become pulmonary veins, which will
transport oxygenated blood back to the left side of
the heart

● the left atrium receives the oxygenated blood, which

is then pumped into the left ventricle

● fromthe left ventricle, oxygenated blood leaves

through the aorta and is transported to all cells in
the body through the systemic circuit
Systemic Circulation

● Responsible for transporting

oxygenated blood TO the
body, from the left side of the
heart

● Responsible for transporting

deoxygenated blood FROM
the body, to the right side of
the heart
● The aorta branches into
smaller arteries, then smaller
arterioles, and then finally
capillaries which surround
each cell.

● Gas exchange occurs between

capillaries and each cell

● Oxygen diffuses into the cells

and carbon dioxide diffuses
into the capillaries
Deoxygenated Capillaries surrounding each cell
(Systemic Circuit)
● the
capillaries which receive CO2 from the body cells
must lead back to the heart

● thesecapillaries carrying CO2 lead into larger

venules, which then become veins, which will
eventually lead into the inferior or superior vena cava
and return to the right side of the heart

● the
right atrium receives the deoxygenated blood,
which is then pumped into the right ventricle

● from the right ventricle, deoxygenated blood leaves

through the pulmonary artery and is transported to
the lungs through the pulmonary circuit
How would these two things affect your respiratory
system?

Altitude training

Blood doping
EVOLUTION UNIT
Evolution
What is evolution?

• Evolution means change.

Biological evolution
involves descent (passing
on through generations)
with modification (change).
• Evolution explains how all
life on earth descended
from a common ancestor.
It looks at how life has changed and
diversified over time.
• This includes small-scale evolution;
the changes in gene/allele frequency
in a population from one generation
to the next. This is known as
microevolution.

• It also includes large-scale evolution,

such as the descent of different
species from a common ancestor
over many generations. This is
known as macroevolution.
Evolution helps us to understand the history of
life.

• Evolution is the great unifying

theme in biology. In fact,
“Nothing in Biology Makes Sense
except in the Light of Evolution.”
(paper by Theodosius
Dobzhansky)
• Watch this video (3:53)
Questions and Misconceptions

There are often questions and misconceptions surrounding

evolution
• Watch this video (5:06)

A few things to listen for:

• does evolution involve “climbing a ladder towards perfection”?
• does evolution mean science and religion are in conflict?
• does evolution mean change is linear; does evolution say that
humans evolved from apes?
 What does a
“Theory” mean in
Science?
 1. Comparative anatomy
There are 5 2. The fossil record
main lines of 3. Embryological evidence
evidence for 4. Biochemical evidence
evolution 5. Geographical distribution
(Biogeography)
1. Comparative anatomy
• If members of a group evolved from a common
ancestor, then they should show many similarities in
structure
• homologous structures and vestigial organs show
evolutionary relationships
• vestigial organs (rudimentary and non-functioning
structures) are features that were an adaptation for
the organism's ancestor, but evolved to be
non-functional because the organism's environment
changed
Homologous
Structures
Homologous structures
Watch this 1 minute video on the
importance of Tiktaalik.
Homologous vs. analogous structures
Homologous structures provide evidence for evolution; analogous structures do not

Homologous Structures Analogous Structures

The same or a common A different ancestor

ancestor
May or may not have the Have the same function
same function
Develop from similar Develop from different
embryonic tissue embryonic tissue
2. The Fossil Record
• By comparing the anatomies of
both modern and extinct
species, paleontologists can infer
the lineages of those species
• there should be intermediate
fossils
• ex. Archaeopteryx, a creature that
lived in the time of the
dinosaurs, had feathers, teeth
and a long bony tail
reptiles 🡪 birds
3. Embryological
evidence
• if members of a
major group
evolved from a
common ancestor,
then their early
development should
be similar.
Can you tell which is which?
Embryological similarities

• All terrestrial animals have non-functioning gill slits (pharyngeal slits) as early embryos
• This suggests a common aquatic origin
• Many vertebrates (including humans) have a primitive tail at an early stage of embryonic
development. This gives rise to our “tail bone”
4. Biochemical evidence
If organisms are
descended from a
common ancestor, they
should be highly similar
at the molecular level
Watch this video “Shared Functions, Shared Genes”
(3 mins) to better understand examples of
biochemical similarities
Watch this series of narrated slides “Common
Ancestry: It's in our DNA” (3 mins) to better
understand the importance of DNA evidence
Watch this
video (1:30) on
the gene for
GFP.
• The fact that the genetic code is universal to all living things suggests that
we once had a common ancestor.
• Comparing the DNA sequence of two organisms can give us an idea of
how closely related they are. For instance, your DNA sequence will be
more similar to a direct relative than a stranger. Your DNA is more
similar to other members of the same species than it is to other species.
The more closely two DNA sequences match, the more recently they
would have shared a common ancestor. By analysing the DNA from
different species Scientists can start to generate family trees
called phylogenetic trees. (Remember these from the Biodiversity Unit?)
5. Geographical distribution (Biogeography)
• Species that evolved before the
breakup of continents are
distributed worldwide.
• Species that evolved after the
breakup of continents are found in
only certain regions of the planet.
• Some species are endemic (only
found in a particular region), while
others are generalists and are
distributed worldwide.

Watch the first 2:30 of this video or

this one for more information.
 Watch the following to review the different lines of
evidence for evolution:
i. This video (11:21) uses the example of whales and
looks at different lines of evidence for their evolution

Optional additional videos:

Additional Analogous vs homologous structures (2 mins)
resources
Vestigial structures (2 mins)

[This series of 21 narrated slides (this link is broken -

requires Flash Player) looked at the general lines of
evidence to support evolution]
 Evolution
Early Ideas on Evolution
 Early Ideas On Earthʼs
Organisms
⚫ Aristotle believed species
were fixed creations
arranged by their
complexity
(Example- earthworms less
complex than snakes)

⚫ Idea lasted
approximately 2000 years
 Beliefs until the 1800ʼs
- The earth was thought to be very young (thousands of
years old)
- Species were immutable (did not change)
- God had created each species in their present form, and
for a particular reason)
 Early Ideas On Earthʼs
Organisms
⚫ Carolus Linnaeus- 1st
to group similar
organisms and assign
them Latin names
⚫ Two word name (Genus
species)
⚫ Known as Binomial
nomenclature
(Example- humans=
“Homo sapien”
 Charles Lyell
⚫ Proposed theory of
Uniformitarianism
⚫ Geological processes at
uniform rates building &
wearing down Earthʼs
crust
⚫ Proposed that the Earth
was millions of years
instead of a few thousand
years old
 Principles of Geology
⚫ Principles of Geology published by Lyell just before the
Beagle set sail-- read by Charles Darwin.

⚫ Explained geological processes that shaped the earth

⚫ Helped Darwin understand sea shells in the Andes
mountains at 12,000+ feet
⚫ Expanded Earthʼs age
 Jean Baptise Lamarck
⚫ Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, 1809
⚫ One of first scientists to
understand that change occurs
over time.
⚫ Stated that changes are
adaptations to environment
acquired in an organismʼs
lifetime.
⚫ Said acquired changes were This is where he was
passed to offspring way off the mark…
 Jean Baptise Lamarck

⚫ Idea called Law of Use

and Disuse

⚫ If a body part were

used, it got stronger

⚫ If body part NOT used, it

deteriorated
 Lamarckʼs Idea: Use and Disuse
⚫ Use & Disuse - Organisms could change
the size or shape of organs by using them or
not using them

⚫ Examples-
-Blacksmiths and their sons (muscular arms)

-Giraffeʼs necks elongated (from stretching for

food)

-Snakes lost legs because they were not using

them.
 Modern day giraffes have
Giraffes constantly
longer necks.
stretched neck to reach
treetops
Original short
necked ancestor

TIME
 Lamarckʼs Mistakes
⚫ Lamarck Did NOT know how traits were
inherited (traits are passed through genes-
not common knowledge during his time)
⚫ Genes are not changed by activities in life
⚫ Change in genes is through allele shuffling or
mutation that occurs before an organism is
born.
⚫ Watch the first part, “In the Beginning”, of this
video series (to 9:20)
 Lamarckʼs Contributions
Lamarck is credited with helping put evolution on the map
and with acknowledging that the environment plays a role
in shaping the species that live in it.

Lamarck held that evolution was a constant process of

striving toward greater complexity and perfection.
⚫ Even though this belief eventually gave way to Darwin's
theory of natural selection, Darwin disagreed that
evolution strived for perfection.
⚫ Darwin concluded evolution was based on random
variation, rather than striving towards a goal (perfection).
 Population Growth
⚫ Thomas Malthus, 1798
⚫ Economist
⚫ Observed babies being born
faster than people were dying.
⚫ Population size is limited by
resources such as the food
supply.
 Population Growth
⚫ Malthus reasoned that if
the human population
continued to grow
unchecked, sooner or
later there would be
insufficient living space &
food for everyone

⚫ Death rate will increase to

balance population size &
food supply
 Population Growth
⚫ Darwin realized Malthusʼs
principles were visible in
nature.
⚫ Plants & animals produce far
more offspring than can be
supported.
⚫ Most offspring die; otherwise the
Earth would be overpopulated.
How Does
Evolution Occur?
 Evolution means change, and
biological evolution explains how
populations of living organisms
change over time.

Remember: Biological evolution involves

descent (passing on through
generations) with modification
(change).
 1. Natural selection
There are several 2. Genetic drift
mechanisms by 3. Gene flow
which evolution 4. Mutations
can happen: We are just going to focus on natural
selection for now.
Natural Selection
• Natural selection is a process. The
organisms which happen to have traits
that are best suited to their environment
survive, reproduce, and pass those traits
on to their offspring. Over time, the
better-adapted traits become more
common.

• Natural selection is a mechanism that

causes populations of living things to
change over time.
Charles Darwin
•Darwin was born in England in 1809 to a family of
scientists.
•He was intensely curious about the natural world,
and loved to watch and collect beetles.
•Darwin enrolled in but dropped out of medical
school, then studied at university to become a priest.
After graduation, one of his professors recommended
him to be the naturalist on an around-the-world
sailing voyage.

•Watch this video on Darwin and his voyage.

How did Darwin develop his theory?

• He traveled around the

world for 5 years on the
HMS Beagle
• Collected thousands of
specimens, made numerous
observations and drawings,
and collected evidence
• Darwin took almost a quarter
of a century to collect his
thoughts and finally publish
his book
 Darwin was familiar with farmers and selective
The Influence breeding (we could also call this artificial selection),
where humans select which plants or animals
of Selective reproduce, based on certain desired traits.
Watch this narrated slide presentation on natural vs.
Breeding artificial selection
What are the main principles of natural
selection?
1. Overproduction
of offspring

Organisms produce more

offspring than can survive.
Many of the offspring die
before reproducing.
What are the 2. Inherited Variations
main principles The implication of variation (due to meiosis)
of natural is that some individuals will be more suited to
particular conditions and therefore more likely
selection? to survive.
What are the main principles of natural
selection?

3. Struggle for existence

Because environmental resources

ex. food, space are limited and
because so many offspring are
produced, there is competition for
these resources
What are the main principles of natural selection?

4. Differential
Reproduction
Individuals best suited to
their environment survive
and reproduce most
successfully. This means they
pass their advantageous traits
on to their offspring.

Watch this video for a “recipe

for natural selection.”
 Review:
What are the main •Watch this video on Darwin and his theory of
principles of natural selection.
natural selection?
 What does the “selecting” in natural selection?
The environment!
Because sexual reproduction produces variations
in offspring, there are different phenotypes
produced. (Remember meiosis!)
If one phenotype gives an advantage, then it
will be selected FOR, and other phenotypes will
be selected AGAINST.
As you work through the activity on Darwin’s
finches in the Galapagos, keep this in mind.
How did a change in the environment (drought
and therefore seed availability) affect which
phenotypes (the bird’s beaks) were best suited
to the changed environment?
 Natural selection is a process that
promotes adaptation. An
adaptation is a genetically
controlled trait that helps a species
survive.

These adaptations can be:

A. Structural
Adaptations B. Behavioural
C. Physiological.

Watch this video on adaptation

(2:30)
 • A structural adaptation is a physical
characteristic an organism has that helps it
A. Structural survive in its environment ex. thorns, webbed
adaptations feet, claws, feathers, tusks, sharp teeth, waxy
coatings on cacti
Camouflage is a type
of structural • Can you pick out the organisms below?
adaptation
Mimicry is a
type of
structural
adaptation
 These are ways that organisms act that help
B. Behavioural them survive their environment ex. migration;
warning calls; mating dances; living or hunting
adaptations in packs; plants going dormant in winter
 C. Physiological
adaptations
These involve processes based on body
chemistry and metabolism that allow
organisms to better survive in and respond
to their environment. They consist of
things like more efficient kidneys for
desert animals such as kangaroo rats;
compounds that prevent blood coagulation
in mosquito saliva; the presence of toxins
in plant leaves to repel herbivores; enzyme
production in Venus fly traps to digest
insects; pigments which allow chameleons
to change colour; poison production in
snakes, spiders, tree frogs.
Patterns in
NATURAL
SELECTION
Microevolution
◦ Natural selection can cause microevolution - a small scale
change in allele frequencies in a population over time
◦ A population is a group of organisms that share a common gene
pool
◦ The gene pool refers to all of the genetic material (all of the
genes, all the alleles) found in a population.
◦ A large gene pool indicates high genetic diversity, which is
healthy for populations. Low genetic diversity can cause
reduced biological fitness.
Fitness
◦ In biology, the term “fitness” is used to describe reproductive success
… the ability for genes to be passed on to the next generation
Natural Selection and Relative Fitness

◦ Relative fitness refers to the contribution an individual makes to

the gene pool of the next generations, relative to the
contribution of other individuals
◦ Relative fitness depends on adaptations
◦ The more adaptations there are, the more fit an individual is

Watch this video (9mins), “The Population Picture” starting at 38:40

 Variations in
phenotypes
◦ Many traits are controlled by multiple alleles,
and produce variations which display a range
of possible phenotypes.
◦ Regardless of the trait/phenotype or its range,
there will always be an “average” for that trait,
as well as extremes at either end. Think of
human height as an example.
◦ If the number of individuals who possess each
phenotype was plotted against the range of
phenotypes, then a “bell shaped” or “normal”
distribution curve results.
Patterns of Selection
Some phenotypes increase an organism’s chance of survival while
other phenotypes decrease an organism’s chance of survival.
Remember that phenotypes are a physical manifestation of
genotypes (which alleles are present). Natural selection can change
the allele frequencies, depending on how the phenotypes are
favoured.

Depending on the environment, the different phenotypes which can

be selected for or against lead to patterns of selection. These can
change the original distribution of phenotypes, with 3 patterns
emerging:
Patterns of Selection
1. Stabilizing Selection
Intermediate phenotypes have the highest fitness. The bell curve
tends to narrow.
2. Directional Selection
One of the extreme phenotypes has the highest fitness. The bell
curve shifts in the direction of the fitter phenotype.
3. Disruptive Selection
Both of the extreme phenotypes have the highest fitness. The bell
curve forms two peaks at both of the fitter phenotypes.
1. Stabilizing
Selection
If natural selection favours the average
phenotype by selecting for the
average and against extreme
variations, the population will undergo
stabilizing selection.
For example, looking at mountain
goats and leg length: natural selection
tends to favor the average length of
legs. Too long legs reduces the goats’
balance and too short legs makes the
goats less agile and able to move
easily.
◦ Stabilizing selection is the most common type of selection
◦ This type reduces genetic diversity, since just one type of
phenotype is selected for
◦ What did you weigh at birth? Ask your parents if you don’t know,
and add your birth weight into the google doc.
◦ We will graph all the weights and see what type of distribution
results.
2. Directional
Selection
If natural selection favours one extreme
phenotype, and selects against the other
extreme, the population will undergo
directional selection. The curve will shift
left or right, in the direction of the
favoured phenotype.
For example, if these darker mice are
better camouflaged in a woody
environment, then the lighter coloured
mice are more easily seen and hunted.
The distribution of phenotypes shifts
towards darker fur.
Directional selection most commonly occurs when
the environment changes

Ex. Peppered Moths and the Industrial Revolution

◦ When tree bark was light coloured (before the
Industrial Revolution), the moths that were light
coloured were favoured because the moths
were camouflaged and birds could not see
them.
◦ The Industrial Revolution caused pollution to
settle on the bark and made the bark darker.
The dark coloured moths were now
camouflaged from birds and the light coloured
ones were more visible (and therefore eaten).
◦ Allele frequencies changed due to selection
pressures.
The “Beaks of the Finches”
◦ Think of last week’s lesson and the video on Darwin’s finches.
◦ The finches went through directional selection, due to environmental pressures
3. Disruptive
selection
If natural selection favours both
extreme phenotypes, and selects
against the average, the population
will undergo disruptive selection.

For example, the brightly feathered

male Lazuli buntings win the
competition for scarce good
territories. They tolerate the dullest
males, letting them settle next door,
however the males with intermediate
colours are chased away.
Disruptive selection is a rare form of selection and
can lead to splitting of one species into two.

Ex. In harbor seals, the smaller seals are faster and

more agile. The can hunt small, quick prey
◦Larger seals are powerful and can hunt bigger
prey
◦Medium sized seals can’t do either well and are
selected against
An additional type of selection
4. Sexual Selection
Involves traits that increase mating success ex. large antlers, bright colours. Seen in
some species where there is competition:
- among the same sexes ex. males compete
with each other for territory

- between different sexes ex. males or females

compete for a mate of the opposite sex
-a special type of natural selection in which the sexes acquire distinct
forms either because the members of one sex choose mates with
particular features or because in the competition for mates among the
members of one sex only those with certain traits succeed
-Can lead to dimorphism (differences in form/appearance between
males and females)
Review – Types of Selection
◦ Watch this video (5:09) or this video (2:23)
Watch this
video
There are 4 key mechanisms of
microevolution:
1. Natural Selection
2. Genetic Drift
3. Gene Flow
4. Mutations

Remember that microevolution involves small scale

changes in allele frequency in a population.
Other mechanisms of microevolution

We have already covered natural selection, so now we will look at

the other mechanisms of microevolution:

2. Genetic Drift
3. Gene Flow
4. Mutations
2. Genetic Drift
◦ Genetic drift is the change in allele frequencies in a population from
generation to generation due to random, chance events.

◦ Genetic drift occurs in all populations, but its effects are strongest in small
populations.

◦ Genetic drift may result in the loss of some alleles (including beneficial ones)
and the fixation, or rise to 100% frequency, of other alleles.

◦ Genetic drift, unlike natural selection, does not take into account an allele’s
benefit (or harm) to the individual that carries it. That is, a beneficial allele may
be lost, or a slightly harmful allele may become fixed, purely by chance.
There are 2 population events involved with genetic drift:

i. The Bottleneck Effect

- Occurs when a population is sharply reduced in size by a natural
disaster, over-hunting, etc.

ii. The Founder Effect

- Occurs when a small group splits off from the main population to
found a colony
i. The Bottleneck Effect
◦ Occurs when a population undergoes a drastic reduction in size as a result of
a chance event ex. fire, flood, drought, overhunting
◦ It is completely arbitrary and the organisms which survive are not selected due
to their phenotypes
◦ The allele frequencies in the survivors are very different from the original
population
 ii. The Founder Effect
Occurs when a few individuals (the “founders”), representing a fraction of the
original gene pool, migrate to a new area and establish a new population

There is isolation from the original population which prevents breeding between
the two populations

By random chance alone, the allele frequencies of one or more genes in the new
population can be very different from the original population
Impacts of
the Founder
Effect

This can account for

the high frequency of
certain disorders in
isolated populations
Watch this video (2:00)
3. Gene Flow
◦ Gene flow involves the movement of genes into or out of a population.

◦ Such movement may be due to migration (immigration/emigration) of

individual organisms that reproduce in their new populations

◦ It could also be due to the movement of gametes ex. pollen being blown to a
new destination or larvae of marine mollusks being carried by currents from
the coast of Africa to the Caribbean Sea

◦ If different alleles are carried to a population where those gene versions

previously did not exist, then gene flow can be a very important source of
genetic variation.
Watch this video just from the 4:00 minute mark
4. Mutations
Mutations involve any random changes to the base sequence in DNA.

If a mutation occurs in somatic cells, it will affect the individual, but it will not be passed
on to the next generation ex. skin cancer, caused by UV radiation, is not inherited.
Somatic mutations do not affect evolution since they don’t change allele frequencies
in offspring.

If a mutation occurs in gametes (germ line cells), then it is passed on to the next
generation. Most mutations are neutral or harmful. If a mutation is lethal, then the
offspring will die, and there will be no change in allele frequencies (and therefore no
evolution). If the offspring with the mutation survives, then this can cause evolution
since the mutation can change allele frequencies. Mutations are more likely to be
favourable if the environment is changing.

Watch this video (starting at 48:15) for a look at the impact of mutations.
Duplications
◦ Duplication mutations can lead to a larger genome
◦ These are thought to be the reason why some mammals have more genes for
detecting odours than others

Watch this video (1:40)

Genes we’ve lost along the way
Watch this video which explores how and why the human genome has changed.
Watch this video (5:23) for a review
MACROEVOLUTION
Macroevolution
Macroevolution encompasses the grandest trends and transformations
in biology, such as the origin of mammals and the radiation of flowering
plants, over geological (LONG!) periods of time. Macroevolutionary
patterns are generally what we see when we look at the large-scale
history of life.
“Evolutionary Clock” in our current Eon
Macroevolution
Macroevolution generally refers to evolution above the species level.

Watch this video (6:50)

for an explanation
of macroevolution.
Remember the time scale involved!
A few quick questions to put this in context …

Answer this “off the top of your head”, without doing any
calculations.

1. a. If someone is 1,000,000 seconds old, how old are they?

 What’s your answer?

b. Now, use a calculator or phone and calculate the answer.

If someone is 1,000,000 seconds old, how old are they?

Answer:

11 DAYS old!!
Remember the time scale involved!
Answer this “off the top of your head”, without doing any
calculations.

We’re going to add 3 zeros, and go from 1,000,000 to 1,000,000,000

2. a. If someone is 1,000,000,000 seconds old, how old are they?

What’s your answer?

b. Now, use a calculator or phone and calculate the answer.

If someone is 1,000,000,000 seconds old, how old are they?

Answer:

32 YEARS!!
Remember … as we work through macroevolutionary change, the
time scale involved is in BILLIONS of years. This means the
cumulative effects of microevolutionary changes have a LONG
time to add up.
Micro- vs. Macro-Evolution
Evolution encompasses changes on vastly different scales — from
something as small as an increase in gene frequencies for dark wings in
beetles from one generation to the next, to something as grand as the
evolution and adaptive radiation of the dinosaur lineage. These two
extremes represent classic examples of micro- and macroevolution.

Watch this video (6:50)

for an explanation
of microevolution
vs. macroevolution
Microevolution happens on a small scale (within a single
population), while macroevolution happens on a scale that goes
beyond the boundaries of a single species. Evolution at both of
these levels relies on the same, established mechanisms of
evolutionary change:

◦Natural selection
◦Genetic drift
◦Gene flow
◦Mutation
Patterns in Macroevolution
All of the changes, diversifications, and extinctions that happen
over the course of life's history are the patterns of macroevolution.
There are general patterns that recur across the tree of life:

1. Stasis (steady state)

2. Character change
3. Mass extinctions
4. Speciation
1. Stasis (steady state)
Many lineages on the tree of life exhibit stasis,
which just means that they don't change much
for a long time, as shown in the figure to the right.
In fact, some lineages have changed so little for
such a long time that they are often called living
fossils.
Watch this video (4:16) for more information on
the coelacanth, a “living fossil” of fish that was
thought to have gone extinct millions of years
ago. If you’re interested, read this article for
more information on how they were discovered.
2. Character change
Lineages can change quickly or slowly. Character
change can happen in a single direction, such as
evolving additional segments, or it can reverse itself
by gaining and then losing segments. Changes can
occur within a single lineage or across several
lineages. In the figure to the right, lineage A
changes rapidly but in no particular direction.
Lineage B shows slower, directional change.
Ex. The acquisition of a key adaptation, such as
feathers and flight in birds, provided the stimulus for
rapid diversification.
3. Mass Extinctions
◦ These ‘prune’ whole branches off the tree of life. But
they can also stimulate the growth of other branches.
◦ By removing so many species from ecosystems in a short
period of time, mass extinctions reduce competition for
resources and leave behind many vacant niches, which
surviving species can evolve into.
◦ Ex. Mammals have been around for more than 200
million years, but they were a small group of rodent-like
organisms. After the non-avian dinosaurs went extinct 65
million years ago (Mya) mammals diversified. In less than
20 million years, they evolved into the great variety of In this diagram, a mass
mammals we know today extinction cuts short the
lifetimes of many species, and
only three survive.
4. Speciation
Speciation is a process that produces new
species.
Phylogenetic trees can reveal speciation. The
phylogeny might reveal that a particular lineage
has undergone frequent speciation, generating
a "bushy" tuft of branches on the tree (A). It might
reveal that a lineage has an low rate of
speciation, represented by a long branch with
very few twigs coming off (B). Or it might reveal
that several lineages experienced a burst of
speciation at the same time (C).
4. Speciation bridges micro- and
macroevolution
Rates of Evolution
Scientists debate what the rate of evolution is, and how
macroevolution proceeds. There are currently two models which have
been proposed:

1. Gradualism
- says that populations slowly diverge from one another
- all changes are slow, gradual, and steady
- proposed by Darwin
2. Punctuated Equilibrium
- says that populations evolve in quick, rapid bursts that are
followed by long periods of stasis (no change)
- proposed by Stephen Jay Gould & Niles Eldridge in 1972
 Gradualism Punctuated
Equilibrium
The slope of the line
indicates rate of change.

Vertical lines = little/no

change
Horizontal lines = very
rapid
change
Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium
The end result of macroevolution,
over billions of years:
We are going to take a closer look at the patterns of Speciation.

See the next ppt for more info on Speciation.

SPECIATION
What is a species?

A species is often defined as a group of individuals that

actually or potentially interbreed in nature, and produce
viable, fertile offspring. In this sense, a species is the
biggest gene pool possible under natural conditions.
What is speciation?
Speciation is a lineage-splitting event that produces two
or more separate species.
 The Galapagos
Islands
On the Galápagos Islands,
Darwin discovered plants and
animals found nowhere else on
Earth.
Evolutionary theory must be
able to explain how new
species originate.
Watch this video (5:36) by the
Cornell Lab of Ornithology.
What must happen in order for
speciation to occur?
Reproductive isolation
◦ Reproductive isolation involves the existence of
biological factors (barriers) that prevent two species
from producing viable, fertile offspring
◦ These can include morphological (form), behavioral, or
geographical factors
◦ Isolated populations adapt to their particular
circumstances, leading to divergence and speciation
Speciation
◦Individual organisms do not evolve, the whole
population evolves
◦A split in the population’s gene pool can cause
speciation to occur
◦Different types of isolating mechanisms are responsible
for the development of barriers to gene flow
◦Development of reproductive isolation may take millions
of years or it can develop in a few generations
 Prezygotic barriers
1. Behavioural Isolation
- Patterns of behaviour ex. mating dances, rituals, calls
are incompatible
2. Gametic Isolation
- Mating takes place between different species, but the
gametes fail to unite with one another ex. sperm
cannot fuse with ovum, or failure of sperm to survive
3. Geographic Isolation
- Species are separated by geographic features that
prevent coming into contact with each other
Prezygotic barriers (continued)
4. Habitat/Ecological Isolation
- Species inhabit different ecosystems that
prevent coming into contact with each other
5. Mechanical Isolation
- Male and female genitals are anatomically
incompatible
6. Temporal/Seasonal Isolation
- Species mate during different times of the year
Prezygotic
barriers
1. Allopatric Speciation
2. Parapatric Speciation Types of
3. Sympatric Speciation Speciation

Note:
“patria” means “land”
Allopatric Speciation
◦ “allo” means “other” … thus, “in the other land”
◦ Involves populations separated by geographical barriers such as
canyons, mountain ranges, bodies of water
◦ There is no longer mating between separated populations;
different populations adapt to different environments ex. climate,
habitat, food availability. May cause populations to change so
much that if the two populations reunite, they no longer
successfully mate
◦ This is the most common type of speciation
Allopatric Speciation
 Allopatric Speciation

Watch this video (2:50) or this video (2:38)

 Parapatric Speciation

◦ “para” means “next to” … thus, “next to in the land”

◦ There is no physical barrier to mating, however some individuals
are more likely to mate with their nearest neighbours than with
individuals at the opposite end of the geographic range
◦ Can cause a gradual change in adjacent populations over the
species’ range
◦ Varying selective pressures and reduced gene flow over the
geographic range can lead to speciation
Parapatric Speciation
Parapatric Speciation

Often see a buffer zone

of hybrids between two
species
Sympatric Speciation
◦ “sym” means “same” … thus, “in the same land”
◦ Sympatric speciation occurs when a subpopulation becomes
reproductively isolated in the midst/middle of a parent
population
◦ A common method involves polyploidy, where the offspring have
extra sets of chromosomes compared to the parents (Remember,
organisms are usually diploid (2N), with haploid (1N) gametes. If
errors in meiosis occur and gametes remain diploid then the
offspring are poly(many)ploid … specifically they could be
triploids (3N) or tetraploids (4N).) Polyploidy often results in death
for animal species, but is very common in plants. Because the
polyploids can only mate with each other and cannot mate with
the original (2N) population, speciation has occurred
Polyploidy
Prezygotic barriers are also important in
sympatric speciation
Review:
Summary: The 3 Types of Speciation

Watch this video

(11:39) or this video
(10:24) for a review
of speciation.
Special Patterns of Speciation
Adaptive Radiation
This involves an event in which one lineage diversifies and
undergoes rapid speciation, with the newly formed lineages
evolving different adaptations.

There are four common causes of adaptive radiation:

- Environmental change
- Mass extinctions
- Invasion of Island Archipelagoes
- Key Innovations/General Adaptations
Mammals Hawaiian honeycreepers
Darwin’s Finches
Anolis lizards
Rates of Speciation
Speciation occurs at wildly different rates:

Ex. Horseshoe crabs have diversified

into 13 species in the last
300 million years

Ex. Darwin’s finches have diversified

into 13 species in the last
100 thousand years